This paper provides a broad introduction to psychology as a scientific discipline, tracing its development from ancient philosophical inquiry to its formal establishment as an independent science in 1879. It surveys the major subfields of psychology—including developmental, social, clinical, and organizational psychology—and examines the key schools of thought that shaped the field, such as structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, behaviorism, Gestalt, humanistic, and cognitive psychology. The paper also briefly addresses newer directions, including evolutionary and positive psychology, and closes with a comparative evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of psychoanalytic and humanistic frameworks.
Humans have long been intrigued by the workings of the human mind. Philosophers and physiologists pondered the questions that psychology, as an independent science, now addresses. Psychology is the study of mind and behavior, both in humans and animals. Many subfields exist within this discipline, and supporters of each may alter the definition above to emphasize their area of concentration.
Developmental psychology examines changes and growth over the lifespan. Child and adolescent psychology, along with gerontology, are subdisciplines of developmental psychology. Social psychology describes the influence and effect others have on our feelings, behaviors, and thoughts. Personality psychology is the study of stable characteristics that influence behavior; traits include aggressiveness, anxiety, and sociability, among others. Experimental psychology, as the name implies, relies on the experimental method, with research areas including cognition, sense perception, and memory. Biological processes are the central concerns of physiological psychology, with most topics revolving around the functioning of the neurological system. Clinical psychology attempts to assess and remedy abnormal and maladaptive behaviors. Finally, organizational psychology addresses the psychological phenomena of business and industry, such as productivity, personnel practices, and market research.
The emergence of psychology as an independent science began in Germany in 1879, with Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first psychological laboratory. In its earliest stages of development, psychology modeled its procedures on those of the natural sciences, meaning that experiments were carried out using the scientific method. Consequently, the formative years of psychology considered only those experiences that could be externally manipulated. The findings of Edward Titchener and Wundt were influential during this period, as they incorporated structuralism into their work. Drawing on the findings of physics and chemistry — which held that matter could be reduced to basic elements — structuralism similarly declared that even complex thought processes could be broken down into elemental components.
Structuralism evolved into functionalism with William James. Functionalism stresses the analysis of mind and behavior in terms of their utility in the environment — in other words, it explores how perception is used to operate in the world.
Psychoanalysis, and its development in the 1890s with Sigmund Freud, brought about a new direction in psychology. The role of personality is central to this theory, as are the unconscious and the underlying motivation of human behavior. The investigative approach of psychoanalysis varies dramatically from earlier approaches. Specifically, free association, dream interpretation, and retrospective examination are the primary methods psychoanalysts employ.
Behaviorism took root in the early twentieth century through the work of John B. Watson. This school of thought proclaimed that, in order for psychology to be a true science, it must study only overt behaviors; under this definition, phenomena such as consciousness were not considered a legitimate area of study. B.F. Skinner further advanced this standpoint through his experiments, though unlike Watson, Skinner was more concerned with the consequences that acts have on the environment.
"Gestalt, Maslow, Beck, and holistic approaches"
"Evolutionary, positive, and feminist psychology subfields"
"Critical comparison of psychoanalysis and humanistic psychology"
Psychology has a rich history filled with sometimes opposing theories. Although the field officially took shape approximately 125 years ago, the breadth and depth of existing ideas is astounding. From developmental to social to organizational psychology, and through the contributions of Wundt, Freud, Skinner, and Maslow, one may find a wealth of information regarding human thought and behavior. Psychologists continue to extend such knowledge through their ongoing efforts to better understand the workings of the mind. Technological advances and increasingly efficient communication channels will undoubtedly continue to propel this science that took centuries to sculpt.
You’re 55% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 3 sections.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.