According to Phillip Rosen in Narrative Apparatus, Ideology: A Film Theory Reader, "The syntagmatic is comprised of the rule-governed relationships among signs present in an actual, concrete signifying "chain" such as a sentence; it is the realm of combination. The paradigmatic is constituted by the relationships among all the possible…alternatives to each element of a signifying chain; it is the realm of substitution." In film, this sort of opposition is somewhat diminished because the director of a film dictates how the signifier is represented in a film with a unique image that is representative of the director believes the signifier is signified. Because of the uniqueness of an image within the context of a film, they cannot be substituted; substitution has the potential of changing the meaning of the film's narrative, which would alter the director's vision.
Structuralism is beneficial in helping to deconstruct the different elements that make up…...

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Works Cited

Padhiar, Asha. "Film Theories." SlideShare. 30 December 2011. Web. 4 May 2013.

Phillips, John William. "Structuralism and Semiotics." National University of Singapore. Web. 4

May 2013.

Rosen, Phillip. Narrative Apparatus, Ideology. A Film Theory Reader. New York: Columbia

Structuralism and the Yellow Wallpaper
Structuralism and Stetson's "The Yellow Wallpaper"

In Charlotte Perkins Stetson's short story, "The Yellow Wallpaper," a chilling and darker side of the Victorian woman is exposed. In the story, a young Victorian housewife is believed to be sick by her husband and subsequently locked up in a room, where she slowly begins to loose her grip on reality. In essence, the story demonstrates the extreme power men at the time had over a much more helpless female role, primarily because the structure of society took away all power the women had over their own bodies, lifestyles, and being. In the story, the term insanity and all the meaning behind it becomes a charged method for a patriarchal society to take away power from women; as the author begins to embrace her perceived insanity she begins to solidify her role within this complex and oppressive gender hierarchy, being…...

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References

Cherry, Kendra. "Structuralism and Functionalism." About Psychology. Web.  http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/structuralism.htm 

De Saussure, Ferdinand. "Course in General Linguistics."

Stetson, Charlotte Perkins. "The Yellow Wallpaper."

" (Barrat, nd) This view however, is not without its challenges. For example, there is a risk that the film will be examined "from the top-down, interpreting the film so that it fits into the general theoretical framework, and thus ignoring an analysis of the film's specific qualities." (Barrat, nd) in addition, it is reported that this theory is itself questionable in terms of its validity. During the 1980s, it is reported, "a new type of film scholarship emerged." (Barrat, nd) Over the past two decades, there have been two post-theoretical approaches to film: (1) neo-formalism/historical poetics; and (2) historical context. (Barrat, nd)
Classical Hollywood cinema is called the stylistic norm where there is classical narration focused on characters that are goal-oriented with a continual system of editing. These norms are held to be "against the historical conditions of the film's production and exhibition. There are various conditions for example economic…...

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References

Barrat, D. (nd) Post-Theory, Neo-Formalism and Cognitivism.

Burgoyne JR and Flitterman-Lewis, S. (1992) New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics; Structuralism and Post Structuralism and Beyond. Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc.

Interrogating Language Codes (nd) Poststructuralist/deconstructivist Theory. Retrieved from:  http://www.tc.umn.edu/~rbeach/teachingmedia/module4/5.htm 

Solanas, F. And Getino. O (2012) Towards a Third Cinema. Retrieved from:  http://documentaryisneverneutral.com/words/camasgun.html

Functionalism and Structuralism
Psychology is one of the youngest sciences and emerged as a separate discipline only in the late 19th century; it has its roots in the philosophy of ancient times. As a matter of fact every development in virtually all fields of human activity is in some way related to its past stages of development. Without these 'building blocks' of development, the present phenomenon of accelerating human progress would simply not be possible and we would forever be stuck in a process of 're-inventing the wheel' without making any material headway.

In a similar vein, psychology -- the scientific study of behavior and mind -- has progressed due to this phenomenon. At the same time, each school of psychology was formed largely as a reaction to the previous school, e.g., Functionalism grew out of Structuralism and so on. This is the subject of my essay.

Ancient Greek philosophers' exploration of psychological…...

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References

Gestalt Psychology Challenges Behaviorism." [Available online]. Retrieved on October 31, 2002 at  http://www.unb.ca/web/courses/fields/module/textbook/ch1pt2e.html 

Leonard Carmichael. "Functionalism." Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2002

Sul Kassin. "Psychology." Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2002

Sul Kassin. "Psychology." Encarta, 2002

Printmaking: A Pre and Post Structuralism Article Review of the process
"It is difficult to return to a pre-Enlightenment way of thinking," according to the author "The Syntax of the Print" Ruth eisberg, whereby beauty alone was assumed to be the primary function of art. However, the standardization of the process of lithography has also, through the postmodern gaze, enabled such standardized reproductions, once considered merely formulaic and derivative process given the Enlightenment century's fixation upon the original and upon beauty, to be considered with the same intellectual seriousness as high art. (53) Although the function of lithography is often for the consumption of consumers, in the form of broadside advertising, and the materials used in the process are of standardized shapes rather than 'original,' eisberg suggests that postmodernism's questioning of the pure nature of artistic visual discourse blurs the distinction between high and low art, between lithography and original works.

For…...

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Work Cited

Weisberg, Ruth. "The Syntax of the Print."

In their book, Progress in Modern Psychology: The Legacy of American Functionalism, Owens and Wagner (1992) suggest that contemporary psychology reflects a common vision of the naturalistic framework that was first inspired by William James and later refined by John Dewey, James owland Angell, Harvey Carr, among others. In this regard, Owens and Wagner argue that one of the key contributors to early functionalism was John Dewey. In sharp contrast to the aforementioned structuralist approach which would analyze a situation into its continent parts, Dewey believed that sensation and the subsequent motor responses could not be legitimately separated, but rather comprised a more linear analysis that provided a coordinated response to a given condition (Owens & Wagner, 1992).
Behaviorism.

According to Zuriff (1985), behaviorism is not the science of behavior (consisting of findings, principles, laws, and theories that are formulated through the study of behavior) but rather provides a conceptual framework…...

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References

Badcock, C.R. (1976). Laevi-Strauss: Structuralism and sociological theory. New York: Holmes & Meier.

Hawkes, T. (2003). Structuralism and semiotics. New York: Routledge.

Noble, C.E. (2006). Structuralism. In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 15, 2006, from Encyclopedia Britannica Premium Service.

Owens, D.A., & Wagner, M. (1992). Progress in modern psychology: The legacy of American functionalism. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Structuralsim vs. Functionalism
The structuralist/functionalist debate in the field of psychology focuses on the framework that psychological approaches should take. In the pioneer days of psychology, scholars argued whether one should take a structuralist or a functionalist approach to interpreting how the mind works. The essence of structuralism was promoted by Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and his pupil, Edward Titchener, is the man who gave the approach its name when he brought its school to America. In competition with Titchener's "structuralism," however, was "functionalism," which grew out of the American response to the German ideas. Functionalism was rooted in the ideas of Darwin and William James, the American philosopher.

The debates between the two schools were heated in spite of calls for a reconciliation between the two, as some saw them as both dealing primarily with the same problem: the conscious self (Chalkins, 1906). The advocates of the two schools, however, dismissed…...

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References

Calkins, M.W. (1906). A reconciliation between structural and functional psychology. Psychological Review, 13: 61-81.

Fancher, R.E. (1996). Pioneers of Psychology. New York: Norton.

James, W. (1904) The Chicago School. Psychological Bulletin, 1: 1-5.

Jones, E.M. (2000). Libido Dominandi. IN: St. Augustine's Press.

Behavioral activities are more of reactions to stimuli and have less to do with cognitive (or brain) processes and more to do with how one acts in a certain environment. Some behavioral activities would include: 1) sitting quietly while in the classroom or in church; 2) opening the door for somebody to walk in ahead of you; 3) using good manners while at a restaurant; 4) helping an old lady cross the street; and, 5) picking up a child that is crying.
4) the following question requires you to write a short essay consisting of a few paragraphs. Compare and contrast structuralism and functionalism by discussing elements such as their definition, founders, and similarities and differences. Edward B. Tichener formally established and gave a name to structuralism, which was first based on Wilhel Wundt's ideas. Structuralism is the first school of psychology and focuses on breaking down the mental processes…...

Chomsky
Noam Chomsky and His Theory of Universal Grammar

Noam Chomsky name is not unknown to the world. Though he is not a psychologist or a psychiatrist but his contributions in the fields of psychology and linguistics has a great impact. His theory of generative grammar has been regarded as one of the most considerable contributions to the field of theoretical linguistics (Berger, 2005).

As a Person

Noam Chomsky, a well-known politician and an exceptional linguist, was born on December 7, 1928 in the state of Philadelphia in the home of a Hebrew scholar (Berger, 2005). He got his early education in Philadelphia while he went to study linguistics, mathematics and philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania. There, he also achieved his PhD degree though he completed most of his PhD work at Harvard University during early 1950s. Chomsky has been associated with Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1955. He has also been teaching…...

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References

Berger, V. (2005). Famous Psychologist: Noam Chomsky. Retrieved January 2, 2012 from  http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/famous_psychologist_and_psychologists/psychologist_famous_noam_chomsky.htm 

Cowie, F. (1999). What's Within?: Nativism Reconsidered. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved January 2, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54457478 

Lechte, J. (1994). Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers: From Structuralism to Postmodernity. London: Routledge. Retrieved January 1, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103622027 

Language Acquisition. (2009). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved January 4, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=117028793

Functionalism & structuralism in the works of Levi-Strauss, Eliade & Malinowski
The functionalist and structuralist approaches to understanding human culture in the works of Claude Levi-Strauss, Mircea Eliade, and Bronislaw Malinowski

The development of anthropology as the study and analysis of human cultures necessitated the formulation of theoretical frameworks and models in which social relations among humans as well as their artifacts, traditions, customs, and beliefs are further understood. Developments in the social sciences in the twentieth century demonstrate the advancement in anthropological studies, wherein diversity and awareness of other human societies have encouraged studies and research on Western as well as Eastern cultures (i.e., countries from the Asian, African, and Middle Eastern regions).

It is in this context that the theories on cultural analysis by Claude Levi-Strauss, Mircea Eliade, and Bronislaw Malinowski are developed, changing the way anthropological methods and analysis were conducted for research purposes. In this paper, the researcher argues…...

Prater Violet was above all else a book meant to elaborate on the creative process as it pertains to film. And although Prater Violet as not intended an avenue for analysis of literary theories, the characters display behaviors and personalities that fall into several theories contemplated in Terry Eagleton' s: Literary Theory:An Introduction. New Criticism, as Eagleton explains, points to the non-essential qualities of novels in their lack of need of an author's life and experiences to draw from. Analysis of the characters can be solely based on their own modalities rather than having anything derived from the writer.
As New Criticism states that the author's life can stand to have no influence on the characters of a story, Structuralism also focuses on elements within works of literature refraining from concentrating on historical social, and biographical influences, but rather linguistics. As Eagleton stated in his book: "If the poem was really…...

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Works Cited

Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction; with a New Preface. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008. Print.

Isherwood, Christopher, Don Bachardy, and James P. White. Where Joy Resides: An Isherwood Reader. London: Methuen, 1989. Print.

Isherwood, C. Prater Violet: A novel. New York: Random House, 1945. Print.

NGO is a non-governmental organization, while an IGO is an intergovernmental organization. The latter is typically created between states. Trade agreements often create IGOs as enforcement mechanisms, for example. Thus, IGOs exist as intermediary between the constituent nations. There are often three or more nations party to the agreement, as per the UIA (2014) definition of an IGO. The body will typically have specific set tasks for which it has been created, and any authority that the IGO has will be related to the performance of those tasks.
An NGO is also an international organization, but exists outside of state influence. The UIA defines an NGO as being transnational in nature but not bound or run by any nation. An NGO may theoretically receive some funding from a nation-state, but in many cases will raise funds privately. NGOs therefore operate independent of state influence, and perform tasks on this basis.…...

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References

Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science. Vol. 162 (3859) 1243-1248.

UIA. (2014). Types of international organization. Union of International Associations. Retrieved December 12, 2014 from  http://www.uia.org/archive/types-organization/cc 

UNCHR.org (2014). What are human rights? United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved December 12, 2014 from  http://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/pages/whatarehumanrights.aspx

Breaching Experiment
A Game of Twister Played at Macy's Department Store

Brief Description of the Breaching Experiment

My daughter, Kayley, who is fourteen and one of her friends, Dani, with her mother's permission, participated in a brief experiment. The experiment was to play the popular game "Twister" in a social setting that would be extremely uncommon for something like that to occur. The three of us took the game to the mall and looked for a spot in which we could play. We asked a few people to participate in the game as the game's "spinner" however each person that was asked refused to participate. Eventually we chose the department store Macy's to play the game.

When playing the game there were several odd looks that were cast in our direction; one lady shook her head in what appeared to be disgust. Shortly after the game began, a store employee promptly demanded that were…...

However, contemporary literature on the subject seems to establish the priciples of comparivie psychology as ones that focus on both proximate and ultimate causation (Dewsbury, 1984).
The power, though, of the comparative approach lies in the ability that the scholar can evaluate target behaviors from really four different perspectives, called Tinbergen's four questions (Burkhardt, 2005).

How pervasive is the behavior across the individual species -- how common is it?

How does the behavior contribute to overall evolutionary success via natural selection (reproductive success)?

What mechanisms are involved in the behavior -- what physiological, environmental or behavioral components must occur?

How does maturation and development contribute to this behavior?

Numerous studies have been done regarding comparative psychology, some even so popular that they are studied by elementary students. However, a few seminal studies have dominated the field. Pavlov, for instance, used dogs to understand the issues of conditioning. Thorndike studied cats and rats to understand patterning,…...

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One must first understand that Freud was not completely contemporaneous with Wundt and James, and therefore there is some scholarly overlap that occurred in the way the three men considered their subject matter, as well as their cultural experiences and the overall "theme" of the times in which they lived.

Freud tended to subdivide and categorize the mind into more quantitative levels of consciousness, but continued to emphasize the unconscious. This evoloved into his famous trio: the id, ego and superego as the building blocks for all human bahevior. It is this pre-counscious, or subconscious level that, for Freud, tended to establish the bulk of the individual's way of being, way of perceiving, and even way of learning (Kahn, 2002).

James, however, perceived himself as a philosopher, attempting to uncover the balances between reality and experience. It was the experience of religion, of esctascy, of pain,

The 21st century culture, however, is at its early stage of development, and society has yet to see what would be the future of technology-driven culture. Possibly, the thousands-to-millions of global villages created through Internet technology would converge to create a cultural explosion that would be the biggest mark of the 21st century. It is also possible that the free, expansive knowledge acquired through the Internet would lead to new schools of thought that will redefine and change the way humans pursue knowledge and truth.
The author talks about the lack of discipline in the words and images that proliferate in the media age. It is important for the author to understand, though, that poststructuralism and postmodernism emanates mostly from words and images created by the technology-driven culture. The discipline Paglia talks about in her essay is still there, although this discipline is not spent on understanding art works from…...

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Works cited

Aylesworth, G. (2005). "Postmodernism." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 November 2009. Available at:  http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/ .

"Poststructuralism." (2009). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 November 2009. Available at:  http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/472274/poststructuralism .

1. paragraph

2. The early days of psychology