This paper provides a broad overview of racism, examining its definition, core characteristics, and the two foundational bases — moral inferiority and genetic inferiority — on which racist beliefs rest. It distinguishes between direct and indirect racial discrimination, offering concrete examples of each, and surveys the legal frameworks many countries have established to combat racist conduct. The paper also traces racism's historical development across the Americas, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, and surveys its varied manifestations, including aversive racism, colorblind racism, and economic, cultural, and institutional racism.
When people believe that individuals of a particular race are inferior to those of another, it is referred to as racism, and these beliefs have taken on different forms throughout human history (Anti-Defamation League, N.d.). When one group attempts to eliminate, dominate, or exclude another ethnic or historical collectivity on the basis of differences the dominant group considers hereditary and unalterable, that too constitutes racism. Broadly, racism is identified on the basis of two characteristics. When a dominant group believes that another race or group of people is morally inferior — and therefore deserves less respect and concern — it represents racism grounded in moral considerations.
On the other hand, when a dominant group believes that another race or group of people is, on average, genetically inferior, and therefore tends to regard them as less intelligent or less capable in a general sense, it represents racism grounded in genetics. This second form has, in fact, been supported by previous generations of scientists (Colman, 1972). Although the two forms of racism are logically distinct — and it is possible to subscribe to one while rejecting the other — they tend to go together in practice. More modern DNA techniques, however, suggest that race or ethnicity is a poor predictor of most genetic traits and is very difficult to define, as there are no sharp distinctions in evolutionary paths (Schoofs, N.d.).
The general characteristics used to generate racial behavior include personal attributes such as color, nationality, citizenship, and ethnic or national origins. In many countries, acting in a manner that denies someone their legal rights on the basis of racial discrimination is illegal. For example, in many countries — including the United States — it is illegal to deny any individual their right to employment, training, or education on the basis of race. Even denying an individual access to goods and services in sectors such as banking, entertainment, transport, and housing is also illegal and may be punishable by law. Similarly, denial of services provided by public authorities — including government health services, other government departments, local authorities, and the police — on the basis of race or racial bias is not acceptable under the law in many countries.
Racism can occur in two forms: direct and indirect (Morrisey, 2015). Actions constitute direct racial discrimination when an individual or group belonging to a particular race is treated less favorably than someone else would have been treated in similar circumstances, solely on the basis of racial background. Examples of direct racism include racist abuse and harassment. When an employer refuses to appoint someone, or denies promotions or training and development opportunities to someone, because that individual belongs to a community of a different race, this constitutes direct racial discrimination.
Indirect racism, on the other hand, occurs when members of a racial, ethnic, or national group are denied access to — or are less likely to meet — certain conditions, rules, or practices that members of another race can more easily fulfill, placing the former group at a disadvantage. Insisting that job applicants hold a degree from a particular country or university, or banning the wearing of attire customary to a certain ethnic group, are examples of indirect racism. Laws in many countries also address indirect racism: individuals who feel they have been discriminated against may file complaints with government agencies or with the relevant department within the organization believed to have established the discriminatory rule or practice.
Despite these legal protections, it is often difficult to clearly identify indirect racism, even though it is the most common form practiced even in the most developed societies. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the United States stands as a landmark legal response to racial discrimination, emerging from decades of social struggle by minority groups seeking equality.
"Racism's origins across continents and eras"
"Aversive, cultural, economic, and institutional racism"
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