This paper presents a critique and synthesis of key research on crisis management within the field of public relations. Drawing on foundational theorists including Coombs, Kent and Taylor, Schannon, and others, the paper examines the tools, roles, and activities of public relations, the evolution of issues management models, Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), and the Dialogic Theory of Public Relations. The paper traces the growth of crisis communication scholarship from the 1980s to the mid-2000s and evaluates how communication strategy, stakeholder management, and organizational dialogue have become increasingly central to effective crisis management in a globalized environment.
Tim Ziaukas, from the Department of Communication Arts, states that "the 1980s witnessed the early development of a subgenre of public relations — crisis management — spawned in large part by the 1979 nuclear accident at Three Mile Island and the communication challenges that occurred nearly simultaneously" (2002). He further notes that "this emerging subgenre of public relations was, in turn, refined and reinforced by a series of crises that occurred during the 1980s and early 1990s, ranging from product tampering to environmental and natural disasters, and set against a backdrop of burgeoning media outlets and exponentially expanding access by an increasingly sophisticated public" (Ziaukas, nd).
Public relations is a function of management that works toward establishing and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with other public entities, specifically for the purpose of managing the reputation of the organization in an effective manner. The responsibilities that fall within public relations management include dissemination of information throughout the organization, with a focus on ensuring that policies and procedures are understood by all members.
The tools and strategies of public relations include: (1) identification of relevant publics and their associated reactions; (2) effective message design; and (3) effective use of the media (Australian Government, nd).
The role of public relations encompasses: (1) placing a subject on the public agenda; (2) garnering public support and endorsement of a person, product, organization, or idea; (3) extending advertising campaigns; and (4) delivering complex information and messages (Australian Government, nd).
Public relations activities include:
(1) issues management; (2) crisis management; (3) media relations; (4) merchandising support; (5) event management; (6) promotion; (7) public affairs; (8) publicity; and (9) sponsorship (Australian Government, nd).
Issues management "involves proactive, systematic identification of issues of potential concern to an organization and development of a system to respond to them." Crisis management is the systematic identification of existing issues and appropriate responses to unplanned events. Media relations involves coping with the media through providing information, responses, and other communications. Merchandising support revolves around product, idea, or image packaging. Event management involves planning in order to gain media attention. Promotional activities represent the organization's attempts to gain support. Public affairs is an intricate area of public relations that includes dealing with community officials, pressure groups, and legislative bodies. Publicity must be managed to further the organization's goals and execute public messages. Sponsorship is a contractual agreement in which promotional opportunities are exchanged for services or money.
Mark Schannon, in his work "Issue Management: Trying to Create Rational Explanations in a Non-Rational World," states that millions of dollars are spent each year in the attempt to answer questions related to crisis management. Schannon notes that "sophisticated research, econometric analyses, media analyses, NGO analyses, and past and future trends are scoured" in the attempt to address these questions. Schannon reviews the conventional issues management model, which was used by many organizations — including the Public Affairs Council — until approximately 2001. This model, according to Schannon, "tracks the intensity of audience engagement in an issue over time. It presupposes a rational linear system that can be measured and predicted. But it fails to capture the reality of the experience" (2004).
Schannon argues that the old model of crisis management did not work for the following reasons:
First, issue change does not occur gradually but may be "abrupt and violent, based on having reached certain thresholds. Something happens to an issue's system, causing it to instantly leap or fall to a new level of engagement. One can envision adding energy into the system until it reaches a threshold level and intensifies, or draining enough energy from the system so that the issue immediately drops to a lower engagement level. This hypothesis is at the heart of a new approach to issues management" (Schannon, 2004).
Second, issue progression is not linear. Awareness does not flow neatly from one target audience to another. Issues arise in unexpected places, affecting disparate and unlikely populations, and they can disappear just as quickly (Schannon, 2004).
Third, issues do not evolve arithmetically. One plus one does not equal two, but sometimes four, and sometimes zero. Twice the number of activists can cancel each other out or quadruple awareness of the issue (Schannon, 2004).
"SCCT framework and crisis anticipation process"
"Dialogue as an ethical communication framework in PR"
"Bibliometric growth of crisis communication scholarship"
"Integrated dialogue and communication in modern crisis management"
Always verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.