This paper traces the history and evolution of network standards from 1995 to the present day, with emphasis on the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model as the foundational framework for modern networking. The paper argues that management strategies, rather than leadership approaches, are most appropriate for handling network standards at scale. It examines the seven-layer OSI model and its role in organizing network communications, reviews major standardization organizations including IEEE, ISO, ITU, and ICANN, and discusses how network standards have adapted to emerging technologies such as wireless networking, Bluetooth, and medical video communications over the past two decades.
Network standards denote a series of classifications for data (including voice) networks that are distributed by numerous organizations like IEEE, ISO, TIA/EIA, and CCITT (ITU). These standards delineate how networks are theoretically meant to work in respects to design, interface, electrical, and general development specifications. Protocols are information communication guidelines aimed at establishing the order and arrangement of bits within an information stream. For instance, every time a person accesses the Internet, prints a document, sends an email, and so forth, the computer utilizes information protocols to arrange the information in the correct form at the right time.
Protocols and standards are important for people to properly design software and equipment that can interfunction with other software and equipment. It has been almost twenty years since network standards began to gain prevalence in the mainstream. This paper examines the history of network standards within the framework of operating systems as well as describes how standards have evolved over nearly two decades. The main obstacle with network standards is providing access internationally while also managing said access now that the internet has grown to include activity from billions of users. These standards present themselves as a way for organizations to evolve and overcome such obstacles in order to consistently deliver adequate services, reliability, and accessibility. This paper takes the position that management strategies, rather than leadership protocols, are most appropriate for handling network standards, a perspective supported by the history of the internet, the OSI model, and the various organizations in control of internet standards and protocols.
The OSI model is the first critical step toward understanding the history of network standards. OSI is the abbreviation for Open Systems Interconnection. Within the model exists an abstract, layered description for computer network protocol design and communications. OSI operates as a model with set standard specifications meant to allow communication of data in an open manner; it is utilized to deal with interconnection among systems. In essence, it helps the way in which systems interchange data. Notably, none of the model focuses on the internal function of a specific system (Faynberg, 1997, p. 45).
The OSI model breaks apart network structure into seven strata: physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application. The order in which information is received begins with the physical layer, followed by data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and finally the application layer. When transmitting data, the order is reversed, with the application layer first. Both transmit and receive operations are connected via a physical link.
Because systems need structure and design to make processes smooth and faster, a layered approach to the model allows for less impact on other layers when modifications are made to one layer. If the model contained only one layer, any modifications would affect the entire model rather than just one layer. Protocol designers are also afforded specialization in a specific area or layer without concern for how many possible effects their design may have on other layers.
Layering allows separation of processes and minimizes an extremely intricate set of activities, topics, and actions into numerous smaller, consistent groups. Understanding and learning the actions within the layers is much easier than managing operations under a single, unified layer. Troubleshooting is also more effective because troubleshooting efforts are better positioned to pinpoint suspected problems or causes more easily and quickly. The single most significant reason to use a layered model is to establish prescribed rules for interoperability among various information communication tasks. Anything that needs to be quickly targeted and remedied benefits from the layered approach, which also increases security. The OSI model serves as the basis and foundation for network standards.
The physical layer is the first and lowest layer of the OSI model. It comprises cabling, repeaters, and connectors and represents the physical networking infrastructure. This layer outlines the physical network structure and defines the electrical and mechanical specifications for utilizing transmission media, bit transmission encoding, and timing rules. The physical layer does not provide error correction; however, the protocols within this layer are transmission-media-specific.
The second layer, the data link layer, controls communication between the physical layer and the network layer. Its main function is to take information received from the network layer below and split it into distinct frames for transmission through the physical layer. The data link layer organizes information into logical groups of data called "frames" and corrects and detects errors while controlling data flow and identifying other computers within the network.
Layer three is the network layer, whose main function is to move information to a particular network location. It performs this by translating logical addresses into appropriate physical addresses and choosing the best path for information to travel from sender to receiver. An important distinction is that the data link layer operates on a single network regarding addressing functions, whereas the network layer performs addressing functions across multiple internetworks (Faynberg, 1997).
Reliability is the main task for layer four, the transport layer. Its primary function is to guarantee that information sent from one computer arrives reliably—without errors and in the correct sequence. The error control apparatus provided by lower layers affords a last-chance opportunity for error recovery. Another responsibility of the fourth layer is flow control and determining transmission rates. Information sent via a computer is divided and split into packets of the maximum size that the network can manage. The transport layer sequences and segments data from the host system and then reassembles it into information for a data stream on the receiving side.
The fifth layer, the session layer, provides processing for regulating dialogue between two end systems. It delineates how to begin, regulate, and finish conversations or "sessions" between applications. Users must establish a logical connection in this layer, and passwords and log-on information are handled here. The session layer terminates connections and provides services such as dialogue discipline, which can take two forms: half-duplex or full-duplex. An important additional function of the session layer is checkpoint processing, which allows all information to be resent from the latest checkpoint in case of failure.
The sixth layer, the presentation layer, is one of the shorter layers in terms of responsibilities and uses. This layer essentially defines the format in which information is exchanged between two interactive entities. It also handles data encryption and data compression, ensuring readability and translation of multiple data formats through a common format.
The final layer, the application layer, is the highest layer of the OSI model and interacts with application programs. This layer comprises management functions in order to support distributed applications. Examples include remote login, electronic mail, and file transfer, as well as word processing programs and spreadsheet programs. A common mnemonic aid is "All People Seem To Need Data Processing," which helps users remember the seven layers.
Understanding the level of operation and processes within the OSI model is essential to fully comprehend network standards and protocols and to see how the field has evolved over nearly twenty years. Numerous organizations and businesses have emerged to oversee network standards and have expanded their operations online through social platforms in recent times.
IEEE, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is a global society composed of engineering professionals whose main objective is to promote education and development in the field of electrical engineering and computer science. IEEE serves as the benchmark for approaching and evaluating organizations' network standards and protocols (Haase, 2012).
ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, consists of an assortment of organizational standards that represent over 146 nations with the main objective of establishing global technological standards for facilitating global exchange of data and boundary-free trade. ANSI, the American National Standards Institute, comprises over 1,000 representatives from government and industry and helps the United States establish global standards. EIA and TIA help ANSI write standards as well as set standards for participants within trade organizations.
ITU, the International Telecommunication Union, handles and controls global telecommunications including telephony and satellite specifications, television and radio frequencies, and applies tariffs to international communications. ISOC, the Internet Society, is a professional membership organization that assists in establishing technical standards for the internet and oversees interest groups like the Internet Architecture Board and the Internet Engineering Task Force.
In the late 1990s, the U.S. Department of Commerce reorganized IP addressing and domain name organization and administration. ICANN, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, became responsible for domain name management and IP addressing. Internet Service Providers then lease addresses to businesses and individuals, effectively providing them with internet access.
The year 1995 marked the decommissioning of NSFNET, which eliminated the final limitations on the use of the internet by businesses and users carrying commercial traffic. The internet has made a lasting and historical impact on commerce and culture. The design of the OSI model is integral to internet usage and plays a key role in the development of network standards. Technologies such as instant messaging, two-way interactive video calls, and Voice over Internet Protocol have all evolved using the internet, with social networking, blogs, and e-commerce taking full effect.
ARPA's research propelled the creation of packet-switching network standards that were then implemented and developed by the International Telecommunication Union. Although the history of development dates back to the 1970s, it was not until the 1990s that it provided the world with a global networking infrastructure.
In the early 2000s, several organizations developed projects to bring forth much-needed standardization. IEEE Project 802.15 is the working group for Wireless Personal Area Networks, and its efforts to bring regulation to Bluetooth led to several attempts at coding and designing protocols to suit the objectives. "The committee of experts that comprises P802.15 is chartered with codifying the physical characteristics and protocols used to construct small, low-power, ad hoc networks used for wireless interconnection of personal electronic devices" (Siep, Gifford, Braley & Heile, 2000, p. 37).
As time progressed, other uses and developments for network standards emerged. In medical applications, network standards were upgraded to include medical video communications. "For medical video communications, the emerging video compression and network standards support low-delay and high-resolution video transmission, at the clinically acquired resolution and frame rates...promote the adoption of m-health systems for remote diagnosis and emergency incidents in daily clinical practice" (Panayides, Antoniou, Pattichis, Pattichis & Constantinides, 2012, p. 2170). Network standards in this context are designed to enable both high-resolution video and low-delay, supporting better video streaming for clinical applications.
Today, through the practice of new technologies such as Special Protection Schemes, coordinated voltage control techniques, wide-area monitoring and control systems, and Dynamic Security Assessment techniques, there is genuine possibility to apply probabilistic frameworks for network security. These technologies make it easier for video projects and installations to run smoothly, which is chiefly the main purpose of network standards, though some organizations and companies have lagged in this sector, especially internationally in countries like India and Mexico.
The introduction of wireless internet and Bluetooth technology makes it necessary for new network standards to be created in order to counteract possible security issues inherent in this type of information exchange. This was not the case twenty years ago, as people did not have access to anything wireless besides telephones, and even then the technology was severely limited. Now everything can be done wirelessly, including recently, telephone calls via wireless internet. Network standards and protocols must deal with possible safety issues along with interruptions in service and quality of information streams.
The evolution of network standards has encompassed decades of changes and improvements. These improvements have enabled higher data streams and increased data usage. The OSI model was developed to handle such data streaming and usage, with the concept that layers are easier to manage than one single layer. It also promotes safer connections, as the layers make it easier to identify potential problems.
Throughout the years, the internet has necessitated multiple organizations taking on various roles to handle network standards. These organizations are numerous and aid in international usage of the internet and data as well as any possible tariffs and policies that may be adopted by other countries. Although certain countries remain behind—such as India—network standards are advancing in these areas as well.
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