Criminological Theories Study Guide: Key Concepts and Chapters

Introduction to Criminological Theory

Causality. A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the appearance of X cause effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X would always cause effect Y each and every time the relationship is observed.

Empirical Validity. This is the most important factor in evaluating a theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research evidence.

Ideology. A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, while a theory explains how things actually are.

Internal Logical Consistency. A theory needs to be presented in a logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not contradict one another. In short: does the theory make logical and consistent sense?

Macro. Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the "big picture" of crime — crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have used the terms "epidemiology" or social structural theories.

Micro. Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of offenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have used the terms "individual conduct" or processual theories.

Necessary Condition. X must be present to produce effect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.

Parsimony. This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are involved — in other words, how simple is the theory?

Policy Implications. If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions does it suggest?

Probabilistic Causality. A concept more applicable to the social sciences. X is more or less likely to cause effect Y — that is, X tends to cause Y.

Scope. Refers to how much, or how many types, of crime or deviance the theory covers.

Soft Determinism. The view that human behavior is not wholly caused, determined, or predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or sociological forces, but that these interact with the exercise of choice and will by individuals. Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is difficult.

Sufficient Condition. Each time X is present, effect Y will always occur.

Tautology. Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientific process. In this case, greed has been defined as committing criminal acts, and the circle of reasoning never stops.

Testability. To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be subjected to scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are tautological, propose causes that are not measurable, or are so open-ended that empirical findings can always be reinterpreted to support the theory.

Theory. In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.

Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior. Theories in this category attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent acts.

Theories of Law and Criminal Justice. Theories in this category attempt to explain how laws are made and how the criminal justice system operates as a whole.

Usefulness. This refers to the real-world applications that the theory proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.

1. Theories are useful tools that help us understand and explain the world around us. In criminology, they help us understand the workings of the criminal justice system and the actors within it.

2. Theories suggest the way things are, not the way things ought to be. They are not inherently good or bad; however, they can be used for good or bad purposes.

3. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social unit or area (macro), or it can attempt to explain crime at the individual or smaller unit level (micro).

4. Because we are dealing with human behavior, the social sciences will never be like the hard sciences. In the hard sciences, the theory of relativity will not change. In the social sciences, however, we deal with probabilities. The social scientist will say things such as, "A severely neglected child will probably commit, or tend to commit, delinquent acts."

5. To be used for maximum effectiveness, theories must make sense (logical consistency), explain as much crime as possible (scope), and be as concise as possible (parsimony). Most importantly, the theory must be true or correct (validity). Having met these basic goals, the theory must then have real-world applications and policy implications.

6. Many theories have common traits, but differences among them still exist. Understanding these differences is key to understanding the often contradictory views of crime and deviance they purport to explain.

The goal of criminological theory is to help one gain an understanding of crime and criminal justice. Theories cover the making and the breaking of the law, criminal and deviant behavior, as well as patterns of criminal activity. Individual theories may be either macro or micro. Theories can be used to guide policy making, and can be evaluated on a number of criteria including: clarity, scope, parsimony, testability, practical usefulness, and empirical validity.

1. Before you began reading this book, what was your personal theory of crime causation? Which of the theories introduced in this chapter came closest to your personal view?

2. If any given theory were able to explain 30 percent of all the crimes committed, would you consider that theory to be successful? Why or why not?

3. If you were a warden at a state prison, how effective must a theory of rehabilitation be before you would implement it in your institution? Policy application of Theory A has yielded modest results in preventing crime with low costs to implement. Policy application of Theory B has yielded a high success rate at preventing crime with very high costs to implement. Which theory would you prefer, and why?

4. Many disciplines factor into criminological theories, such as psychology, sociology, biology, political science, and criminal justice. Do you feel that the integration of all of these disciplines holds the best chance for explaining the most crime, or should the disciplines remain pure?

Absolute Deterrence. This refers to the amount of crime that has been prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that an individual could be legally punished for committing a criminal act.

Acute Conformists. One of three types of individuals identified by Pogarsky. These individuals comply with the law because it is the right thing to do.

Boot Camps. Programs used in place of incarceration, based upon a military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a deterrent effect on young offenders, but they have generally failed to yield long-term reductions in recidivism.

Celerity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.

Deterrence and Rational Choice Theories

Certainty. One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for a crime. Certainty is the most important of the three elements.

Classical Criminology. A school of thought based upon utilitarian notions of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core, classical criminology holds that a crime is committed after an individual weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a rational decision, and is best countered through a deterrence-based system.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). A set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a potential target less appealing to a criminal, and thus not a "rational" target.

Deterrable Offenders. One of three types of individuals identified by Pogarsky. This is the only group that may be deterred by the threat of sanctions.

Deterrence Theory. A core principle of classical school and rational choice theories. This theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of punishments that combine the proper degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity. Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.

Expected Utility Principle. Economic theory which states that people will act in a manner that increases their benefits and reduces their losses. This ties in closely with classical criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory, where people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.

Free Will. The belief that humans are rational and have the ability to make decisions according to each individual's own will and purposes. Under this perspective, people can understand the difference between right and wrong, and can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law. In later chapters, this view is contrasted with views that claim crime is a result of biological, psychological, or social forces beyond an individual's control.

General Deterrence. The doctrine that a community or society of people can be deterred from committing a criminal act after having witnessed the punishment of another individual or individuals for having committed that act.

Incorrigible Offenders. One of three types of individuals identified by Pogarsky. These people are so committed to criminal activity that they cannot be deterred.

Perceptual Deterrence. This concept applies to an individual offender and refers to what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how severe he or she believes the punishment will be if caught. The perceptions of the individual are often very different from the actual reality experienced.

Proportionality. Punishment should fit the crime without regard to individual differences.

Rational Choice Theory. This is the 1980s formulation of classical criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced back to eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare Beccaria, this version adds a new dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in criminological thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime, and other associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.

Retribution. Making the punishment fit the crime. Also referred to as "an eye for an eye."

Routine Activities Theory. This theory states that for crime to occur, three elements must be present: an available target, a motivated offender, and a lack of guardians.

Scared Straight. This program began in the 1970s with the belief that taking young offenders or potential offenders to a prison environment, and exposing them to the realities of prison life, could prove beneficial in reducing delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not produce the expected results.

Severity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how harsh the punishment for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important to remember that a punishment must fit the crime. If a punishment is not severe enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more crime.

Shock Incarceration. This approach generally uses a combination of a brief prison sentence followed by probation. The hope is that brief exposure to the realities of incarceration will deter the offender from further criminality.

Specific Deterrence. This style of deterrence is used with a specific offender in mind. The belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal act, that individual will be less likely to violate the law in the future.

Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making (TDRM). A process of good decision making in which all relevant information is collected and analyzed, possible solutions and alternative solutions are considered, and reflection on what went right and wrong is also included.

1. Classical criminology was designed to provide a rational, logical, and philosophical alternative to what was often an abusive, cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary system of justice.

2. The operation of the current criminal justice system relies on the classical criminological perspective. The Classical School is reflected in both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution.

3. Classical school theories operate from a perspective of choice. The assumption is that individuals have the ability to make a rational choice to either follow the law or to violate it. A system of punishments is necessary to deter individuals from committing criminal acts. Because committing criminal acts brings a certain amount of pleasure to the individual, punishments must carry enough pain to outweigh that pleasure.

4. A classical school approach is attractive to many because it is centered on choice. People choose to commit criminal acts. This perspective will be countered in later chapters by theories that rely on biology, psychology, and the environment, among other factors. Choice theory is attractive to politicians because it places the blame for the crime problem squarely on the shoulders of the individual, and not on society as a whole. The theory implies that the criminal needs to take responsibility and make better choices.

5. Various programs have been tried around the country using deterrence and choice as primary elements. Programs such as Scared Straight have attempted to use fear and deterrence to keep young offenders from committing additional crimes. Boot camps have attempted to use fear, discipline, and brief incarceration to the same end. These types of programs are controversial and have yielded mixed results at best.

6. While deterrence is a factor in preventing individuals from committing criminal acts, it most likely is not the deciding factor. Most people will not commit criminal acts because they believe it is wrong to do so and because they have been socialized to follow the norms of society.

Deterrence theory states that if punishment is certain, severe, and swift, then people will refrain from committing criminal acts. Deterrence theory is at the core of the criminal justice system and is the basis for most strict punishments and long prison sentences. Is deterrence theory empirically valid, however? That is a difficult question to answer. Studies have found mixed support for deterrence theory. Modifications such as rational choice and routine activity theory have found mixed support as well.

1. Certainty, severity, and celerity are the key elements of deterrence theory. What makes certainty so important? Could we not reduce crime by making the punishment so severe that a "rational" individual would be afraid to commit criminal acts?

2. Programs such as Scared Straight and boot camps are controversial and may not yield long-term reductions in recidivism. They are, however, cheap and easy to operate. Should cost considerations and the fact that these programs may help a few individuals justify their continuation?

3. Routine activity theories look at people — both offenders and victims — and their routines. As a result, some of the blame in a criminal incident may be placed on the victim. Is that fair? Is a victim ever responsible, or partly responsible, for his or her own victimization?

4. Explain the evolution of classical school criminology from Beccaria through Deterrence Theory, Routine Activity Theory, Rational Choice Theory, and Just Deserts. What modifications have been made along the way?

5. Classical school criminology relies heavily on the concept of free will. How can one ever demonstrate empirically the existence of free will?

6. How has recent research on the effects of specific deterrence versus perceptual deterrence changed the way the entire concept of deterrence is viewed? What additional studies should be conducted to clarify the issue?

Beccaria, Cesare (1738–1794): Italian nobleman, prominent in the eighteenth century; wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).

Bentham, Jeremy (1748–1832): Jurist and philosopher, prominent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; advocated abolishing the death penalty.

Cohen, Lawrence E.: Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing the routine activities theory.

Felson, Marcus: Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the routine activities theory.

Adoption Studies. Studies conducted with children reared by biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents, in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have been mixed.

Atavism. Part of the theory developed by Lombroso, in which a person is a "born criminal." Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution and will commit crimes against society unless specifically restrained from doing so.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). Mednick's theory that individuals who inherit a slower-than-normal autonomic nervous system learn to control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly, or not at all, leading to increased violence and criminal activity.

Behavioral Genetics. A range of theories in which a combination of genetics and environment influences behavior.

Biological School. A view of crime, also referred to as biological positivism, that claims criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly conflicts with classical criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological perspective, deterrence is of little value.

Biosocial Theories. Theories that examine the combined effects of biology, behavior, and environment on criminal behavior.

Biosocial Arousal Theory. This theory states that an individual's level of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and violence, and thus are more prone to commit crime.

Born Criminal. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This type of criminal is the most dangerous and can be identified through his or her stigmata, or identifying characteristics.

Concordance. This examines the degree to which criminal or law-abiding behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.

Biological and Biosocial Theories

Criminaloid. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The criminaloid is motivated by passion and will commit criminal acts under the proper circumstances.

Determinism. In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an individual's criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft Determinism, as explained by Matza, examines the role of determinism but also acknowledges that other factors — from environmental to choice — may be part of the equation, assuming that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by genetic or biological makeup.

Evolutionary Theory. A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival.

Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory. A general approach suggesting that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to generation.

Insane Criminal. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions; however, they do not possess the stigmata of the born criminal.

Mental Functioning and Delinquency. A neurophysiology approach that held that delinquents were feebleminded or had some form of a learning disability. This approach has also been used to examine relationships between IQ and crime, as well as aspects of verbal ability and mental flexibility.

Stigmata. Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the "born criminal," including extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large, monkey-like ears.

Testosterone and Criminal Aggressiveness. A biochemistry approach that looks at the relationship between the male hormone testosterone and antisocial aggressive behavior.

1. The fundamental concept behind early biological theories was the belief that individual difference could be scientifically measured.

2. Early biological theories view criminal behavior as the result of a defect in the individual. This defect can be biological or genetic in nature, and serves to separate the criminal from the law-abiding citizen. Contemporary biological theories concentrate more on variations in genetic and other biological factors in interaction with the environment, and are less likely to refer to biological defects or abnormalities.

3. Punishment serves a different goal in biological theories. While punishment may be appropriate to protect society, it will not have a deterrent effect. Because there is an inherent defect or abnormality within the individual, deterrence or the threat of punishment will not affect behavior.

4. Although early biological theories lacked validity, they were among the first to use the scientific method. The process of measuring body parts, shapes, and sizes — although flawed — represented a dramatic shift from the philosophical approach offered by the classical school.

5. Biological theories trace back to Lombroso and vary in the amount of determinism built in. Atavistic man, or the "born criminal," was always going to be at odds with civilized society. More modern biological theories seek to establish a link between things like IQ, testosterone, and criminality. While they share a biological link, modern theories understand that the influences of choice and the larger society also play a role in the crime dynamic.

6. If traditional biological theories are correct, then society is limited in its responses to offenders. There are five basic responses. First, we could try to fix the offender through medication, treatment, or therapy. Second, we could incarcerate the offender and keep him or her physically separated from larger society. Third, we could sterilize the offender, which would prevent individuals from passing along defective genes to future generations. Fourth, we could deport or banish the offender. Finally, we could choose to execute the offender. If crime is truly biologically determined, these options — or close derivatives of them — would prove more useful than any punishment designed to remove the pleasure from a criminal act.

7. More recent biological or biosocial theories hold that even if some biological traits are passed down that would make an individual more predisposed to commit criminal acts, these traits can be addressed through effective social programs. Having a biological trait, then, is not the end of the story. It does not doom one to a life of crime, and can in fact be dealt with and managed.

Chapter 1 introduced the basic vocabulary and rules necessary to understand crime from a criminological point of view. Understanding the terms and rules is necessary to move beyond a "commonsense" understanding of criminal and deviant activity. Theories of the causes of crime and deviance fall on a continuum from a "micro" focus on the characteristics of individuals to a "macro" focus on the characteristics of the larger society.

Chapter 2 examined classical school criminology. Classical school, or rational choice theory, advances the view that crime is the result of a choice made by the individual offender. Under this perspective, the offender weighs the potential pleasure of committing the act along with the potential pain if caught and punished. If the pleasure outweighs the pain, the offender will make a rational choice to commit the crime. Under this perspective, the proper way to prevent criminal activity is through the use of deterrence and punishment.

Chapter 3 looks at biological theories. Traditional biological theories state that individuals commit criminal acts due to biological or genetic defects. Crime is a result of these abnormalities, and not a choice made by the offender. Crime can be prevented by isolating, treating, separating, sterilizing, or executing the individual. Modern biosocial theories believe that an individual with an inherited trait can benefit from social programs, and that an inherited trait alone is not sufficient to doom an individual to a life of crime. It is important to note that biosocial theories have found new life in mainstream criminological theory. After being widely discredited, new biosocial theories that rely on advances in genetics, brain functioning, neurology, nutrition, and biochemistry — and less on strict determinism — have gained growth and acceptance in the field. While controversy still exists when trying to establish a relationship between IQ and crime, biologically based theories remain an important part of criminological theory.

1. Things like eye color, hair color, facial features, and personality are passed down from generation to generation. If this is true, why would we not expect criminal behavior to be passed down as well?

2. It is well established that inmates as a population have a lower IQ than people in the rest of society. Does this fact prove a genetic or biological link in understanding crime?

3. What have we learned about biology and crime from adoption and twin studies? Should these studies be replicated and improved upon today?

4. Should scientists continue looking for biological causes of criminality? Could such research be attacked on the grounds that it promotes racist, sexist, or class-based stereotypes?

5. How should history judge the work of Lombroso? Is it fair to use standards from 2012 to judge the work he did in 1876?

6. Compare and contrast the views of traditional biological theories with those of modern biosocial theories.

Lombroso, Cesare (1836–1909): First to use the scientific method in criminology; wrote The Criminal Man (1876).

Eysenck, Hans J.: Proposed the biosocial "arousal" theory.

Ferrero, William: Co-authored Female Offender (1958 [1897]) with Lombroso.

Goring, Charles (1870–1919): British criminologist who proposed the idea that criminals are shorter, weigh less, and are "mentally defective"; wrote The English Convict: A Statistical Study (1913).

Hooten, E. A. (1887–1954): Anthropologist and neo-Lombrosian who proposed that crime is caused by physical inferiority; wrote Crime and the Man (1939).

Mednick, Sarnoff: Developed the best-known and most systematically stated and tested modern biosocial theory.

California Psychological Inventory (CPI). A test designed to measure personality traits such as dominance, tolerance, and sociability.

Ego. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality, and it acts to keep the id in check.

Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6), in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her mother.

Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood.

Id. One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). A test designed to use different scales of questions to measure abnormal personality traits such as depression, hysteria, paranoia, psychopathology, and compulsiveness.

Oedipus Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6), in which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his father.

Personality Theory. This theory holds that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-seeking.

Psychoanalytic Theory. A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual.

Psychological Counseling. The process by which an underlying mental issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; that punishing the criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value; and that counseling is the only way the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately.

Psychological Theory. A general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual to explain criminal or deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself is important only in that it highlights an underlying mental issue.

Social Learning Theory

Retroflexive Reformation. This process is based upon differential association and often takes place in a group setting working with both offenders and non-offenders. The concept suggests that offenders who join the side of the non-offenders in attempting to get other offenders to change their definitions favorable to law violation actually wind up reducing their own criminal definitions as well.

Self-Reinforcement. The exercise of self-control used by an individual to reinforce his or her own behavior by seeing that behavior through the eyes of another.

Social Learning Theory. In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming behaviors are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influences — such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation.

Social Reinforcement. This refers to the actual, perceived, expected, tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an individual by society or a subset of society.

Social Structure and Social Learning Model. A model proposed by Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an individual's actions through the social learning process.

Symbolic Interactionism. The process by which two or more individuals share a commonly understood language or set of symbols. All individuals have the ability to incorporate other people's reactions into their own behavior and use those reactions as part of their own self-understanding. For example: you want to know how you look in a new outfit. Part of your understanding of how you look is going to be based upon how others respond to you. You are able to read others' facial reactions, body language, and verbal cues to understand how they view you, and you then use this information when deciding if you look good in the outfit.

1. As a general concept, social learning theory has been applied to the fields of sociology, psychology, criminal justice, and criminology in an attempt to explain how criminal values, ideas, techniques, and expressions are transmitted from one individual to another.

2. Differential association theory, developed by Sutherland, is a learning theory that concentrates on one's associates and the normative definitions one learns from them.

3. Akers identified four dimensions of social structure that can possibly be integrated with social learning: differential social organization, differential location in the social structure, theoretically defined structural variables, and differential social location.

4. Learning theorists believe that deviant behavior can be eliminated or modified by taking away the reward of the behavior, increasing the negative consequences of the behavior, or changing the balance of reward and punishment for the behavior.

5. Just as positive behaviors reinforce positive behaviors, deviant behaviors also reinforce deviant behaviors. Deviant peers who reinforce one another's behaviors can form fast bonds of friendship. The effects of such a relationship expose all of the individuals involved to higher rates of future substance abuse and criminal activity.

If crime is not the result of choice, biology, or psychology, then how can it be explained? The theorists in Chapter 5 believe that crime is learned through interaction with others in one's social environment. Social learning theorists in criminology state that criminal behavior, like other behaviors in life, is a learned activity. Social learning theorists seek to understand and explain how a person learns to become criminal, and then to develop strategies and programs that model appropriate behavior.

1. Can any present-day policy implications be drawn from the Highfields project or the Provo experiments?

2. Although it has been demonstrated that diversion programs have had moderate success, creating a "positive peer culture" to prevent delinquency has disadvantages. What disadvantages come from using positive peer culture techniques, and why?

3. What significant contributions did Burgess and Akers make to Sutherland's differential association theory? Was it necessary for Sutherland's theory to be elaborated upon to better explain crime as it exists today?

4. What programs are the most effective in preventing delinquency — those that aim at juvenile delinquency, or those that involve children and their families regardless of delinquency status?

5. ATP focuses on at-risk youth. Would it be appropriate to extend Patterson's program to all pre-teen adolescents as part of an academic curriculum?

6. Discuss the OSCL training program and how it has worked with foster parents and in school activities.

Akers, Ronald: Sociologist and criminologist; collaborated with Robert Burgess to develop the differential reinforcement theory; wrote Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).

Bandura, Albert: Psychologist and child development expert; examined stages of development and concluded that conduct develops at particular stages when certain interaction stimuli are present.

Burgess, Robert L.: Behavioral sociologist; collaborated with Ronald Akers to develop a "differential association-reinforcement" theory of criminal behavior.

Elliot, Delbert: Developed an integrated theory; wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).

Sutherland, Edwin (1883–1950): Developed the differential association theory; wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology (1947).

Containment Theory. A control theory in which the inner and outer pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment measures.

Control Theories. A classification of theories that ask not why people commit criminal acts, but why they do not. These theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and seek to answer why some people refrain from doing so.

Delinquent Subculture. A group of delinquent peers who may influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive group approval. This concept works in conjunction with control theory and may pull an individual toward delinquency.

Drift Theory. This theory states that people can "drift" or float back and forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control are weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float back to law-abiding behavior.

External Control. A concept in control theory in which agents outside the control of the individual — such as parents, teachers, or law enforcement — are responsible for keeping that individual from committing criminal or deviant acts.

Internal Control. A concept in control theory that explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior, including feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others.

Natural Motivation. The belief in control theories that the desire to commit criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across society.

Self-Control Theory. A specific type of control theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi in which self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts.

Self-Concept. An element of containment theory thought to be responsible for insulating an individual from criminal activity. Similar to self-esteem.

Social Bonding Theory. A control theory that states that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are weakened or broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an individual will refrain from criminal activity.

Social Control. Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal or deviant act, including the family, church, and school.

1. Social bonding and control theories are nontraditional criminological perspectives because they seek to explain why individuals conform to societal norms, not why they commit crime.

2. Travis Hirschi's theory has many policy implications and can be used to reduce delinquency. His theory can be seen in policies such as curfew laws, after-school programs, parenting classes, and job placement programs.

3. Hirschi utilized theory construction, conceptualization, operationalization, and empirical testing to develop a perspective that still stands as a criminological model today.

4. The Social Development Model (SDM) has supported bonding and learning theories and has demonstrated success in the areas of commitment and attachment.