ational Choice Theory
History and Development of ational Choice theory

When we are faced with a decision, there are always some options involved. Which path is the correct one, which option would best serve our purpose, which choice appears most suitable are some of the key questions on which we base our decision. Man by nature is interested in maximization of his profits whether professional or personal. No one would deliberately want to take a risk that is bound to go awry. In almost every case, man carefully studies the situation and then chooses the best option available to him. And this is not something limited to money matters but extends itself to almost every area of life including social relationships, religion, politics etc.

ational choice is thus defined as: "A choice of a course of actions is "rational" if it results in a maximization of well-being. In short, rational action is the…...

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References

Green, Donald, and Ian Shapiro. 1994. Pathologies of Rational Choice. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press.

Selected articles from The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, edited by Jeffrey Friedman

Mark Johnson, George Lakoff: Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought. Basic Books New York.1999

David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement: Oxford University Press. Oxford, England. 1986

Rational Choice Theory -- Obama's Sanctions on Iran
The Rational Choice ade by a U.S. President

The recent action by U.S. President Barack Obama to place additional sanctions on the country of Iran represents one more step in the West's attempt to stymie Iran's apparent drive to build a nuclear bomb. It has been known for some time that Iran had nuclear reactors for generating electricity, and from the production of electricity through nuclear fission, materials for a bomb can be gleaned. But the key issue to Western governments (Europe, the U.S., Canada and other Western nations) is to try and block Iran's policy by cutting off the number of countries that Iran can sell crude oil to. Specifically, Obama targeted "financial institutions doing business with Iran's central bank, a key conduit for the country's oil sales," according to The Wall Street Journal (Hodge, et al., 2012)

. In making the move Obama…...

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Max Weber, "Conceptual Exposition," In Economy and Society Ed. G. Roth and C. Wittich (1968).

John Scott, "Rational Choice Theory," in Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present, Eds. G. Browning, A. Halcli, and F. Webster (Sage Publications, 2000).

George Homans, "A Psychological Basis?" In Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present, Eds. A. Halcli, and F. Webster (2000).

principal of rational choice takes into account the concept of choice and opportunity cost, brought about by the scarcity of economic resources. It assumes that individuals would always prefer that alternative that yields the highest utility. The theory of rationality has three basic underlying properties: completeness, transitivity, and continuity.
The completeness principal holds that, an individual would always strictly prefer one alternative to another, unless the two alternatives yield equal benefits. In the words of Nicholson and Synder (2012), "faced with two alternatives A and B, an individual can always specify one of three alternatives: either 'A is preferred to B', 'B is preferred to A' or 'A and B. are equally attractive'" (p.89). Transitivity seeks to ensure consistency in decision making, such that, if a given alternative (say alternative X) is preferred to some other alternative (perhaps alternative Y), and Y is of greater significance than yet another alternative…...

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References

Baumol, J.W., & Blinder, S.A. (2012). Microeconomics: Principle and Policy (12th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

Nicholson, W., & Snyder, C.M. (2012). Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions (11th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

Sexton, L.R. (2010). Exploring Microeconomics. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

Chart1

ar is a necessary and inevitable. The question of whether it is justified is dependent on the conditions of each war individually, but the necessity and inevitability of armed conflict among human societies has been demonstrated consistently throughout history. Davidson and Lytle (1992) provide a strong argument in favor of this position with their description of the conditions surrounding the detonation of the atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki to bring an end to the Second orld ar.
Davidson and Lytle argue that the reason for these bombings was not as much to end the war with the Japanese but rather to send a message to the Soviet Union. At the time, the U.S.S.R. was also pursuing nuclear weapons technology. In the wake of the end of the war in Europe, that continent had been effectively been divided between the United States and its allies in the est and Stalin's USSR…...

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Works Cited

Crossman, Ashley (2014). Rational choice theory. About.com. Retrieved May 25, 2014 from  http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Rational-Choice-Theory.htm 

Davidson, James & Mark Lytle. The decision to drop the bomb. After the fact: The Art of Historical Detection. McGraw-Hill.

Korab-Karpowicz, Julie. (2013). Political realism in international relations. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved May 25, 2014 from  http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/realism-international-relations/

Leadership Traits: The ole of Humility in Effective Leadership for Christians in Public LeadershipIntroductionEffective leadership is crucial for the success of any organization or community. In the context of public leadership, Christian leaders are called to serve others with humility and prioritize the interests of others over personal gain. This paper argues that humility is the necessary foundation for effective leadership for Christians in public leadership. While traits such as integrity, authenticity, communication skills, adaptability, and emotional intelligence are complementary for effective leadership, traits like narcissism and remoteness are not desirable for Christian leaders in public leadership. Positive traits can positively influence decision-making through the lens of the ational Actor or ational Choice models, while negative traits can negatively influence decision-making.ational ChoiceThe rational choice approach is a useful framework for understanding leadership decision-making in complex situations, as it assumes that individuals make decisions based on rational calculations that maximize their…...

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ReferencesBrennan, G., & Brooks, M. (2014). Rational choice approaches to leadership. RAW Rhodes & P.’t Hart (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Leadership, 161-175.Irving, J. A., & Strauss, M. L. (2019). Leadership in Christian perspective: Biblical foundations and contemporary practices for servant leaders. Baker Academic.Malphurs, A. (2003). Being leaders: The nature of authentic Christian leadership. Baker Books.McIntosh, G. L., & Samuel Sr, D. (2007). Overcoming the dark side of leadership: How to become an effective leader by confronting potential failures. Baker Books.Morris, J. A., Brotheridge, C. M., & Urbanski, J. C. (2005). Bringing humility to leadership: Antecedents and consequences of leader humility. Human relations, 58(10), 1323-1350.Newstead, T., Dawkins, S., Macklin, R., & Martin, A. (2021). We don\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'t need more leaders–We need more good leaders. Advancing a virtues-based approach to leader (ship) development. The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 101312.Rueda, D. (2021). Is populism a political strategy? A critique of an enduring approach. Political studies, 69(2), 167-184.Sindane, A. M. (2011). Values and ethics enter the real world: a framework for public leadership and governance. Koers: Bulletin for Christian Scholarship= Koers: Bulletin vir Christelike Wetenskap, 76(4), 751-769.Stein, M. (2013). When does narcissistic leadership become problematic? Dick Fuld at Lehman Brothers. Journal of Management Inquiry, 22(3), 282-293.Stowell, J. M. (2014). Redefining leadership: Character-driven habits of effective leaders. Zondervan.Van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis. Journal of management, 37(4), 1228-1261.Zyuzev, N. (2022). Altruism and rational choice theory. The American Sociologist, 53(1), 44-52.

It is methodological individualism which makes up the group, creating problems for the ational Theories which tout individualism as the driving force in motivation. Some say that the actions of individuals results in an unintended consequence when done in a group (Scott, p. 30).

If you look long enough for the secret of society you will find it in plain sight: the secret of society is that it was made by men, and there is nothing in society but what men put there'" (Homans, p. 385).

Captain David Poston, head of the CMPD Property Crimes Unit, who spoke to the problem of this rash of burglaries within the metropolitan area in November, 2007, said that "while citywide, burglaries were down nearly 5% last year compared to 2006, we have seen an increase in the past couple of weeks" (Charlotte, p. 1).

He admits that over the month preceding, detectives saw a pattern to…...

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References

Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Dept. (2008). Recent spike in home break-ins: suspects & Methods. Crime in Charlotte, NC. Retrieved January 26, 2008 at  http://www.crimeincharlotte.com/ .

Homans, G. (1961). Social Behaviour: Its Elementary Forms. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Scott, John. (2000). Rational Choice Theory. Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present, Boston: Sage Publications.

ational XDE modeling tool
We recently received the ational XDE modeling tool for use in class and luckily I had some previous practice using it. "XDE Professional, originally released in February, is a tool that allows software developers to "model" -- or create graphical representations of -- their software, so they need to write less code to build applications." (Wong, 2002) This report aims to describe my understanding of XDE and gives some back ground to its potential for both modeling and drawing. In theory and in most cases ational XDE makes design and development faster by allowing the designer to work on two different aspects of software creation in one environment. ational as an organization also created the Unified Modeling Language or UML tool ational ose which is still a pretty well used modeling tool for Internet and object oriented design projects. "The original version of XDE for .Net edition…...

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References

Wong, Wylie (2002). Rational rethinks modeling tool for .Net. CNET News.com. Retrieved on February 1, 2005, from  http://news.com.com/Rational+rethinks+modeling+tool+for+.Net/2100-1001_3-954425.html

Rational Business Decision
Poor Decision Making

One of the most difficult things to admit is when one has made a mistake. In retrospect, the decision not to promote Ms. X, given her sterling performance for our competitors, is one such a poor decision on my part.

However, I have learned from my mistake. I realize that I should not have rejected her request for a promotion, and the added responsibilities that such a position entailed out of hand.

At first, deploying what is known as Recognition Primed Decision Making, under the stressful situation of her immediate prompting, I bridled at the idea of paying her more, because I knew that the department was financially strapped.

However, she requested an audience with me. Still, I rejected her request again, deploying the Explanation-Based Model of decision making, when a decision maker such as myself "will attempt to create a full story from some incomplete raw facts and…...

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Works Cited

Khan, Larry. (2004) Decision Making Models. MIT Website. Retrieved on June 15, 2004 at http://www.geocities.com/SouthBeach/1285/decision.html

Scholl, Richard. (1999) Decision Making Models Summary. Retrieved on June 15, 2004 at http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Notes/Decision_Making_Models.htm

His checklist includes:
1. ecognize that there is an ethical issue.

2. Determine the actor, i.e. whose issue it is.

3. Gather the relevant facts.

4. Test for right vs. wrong - if it is, then this is not an ethical issue, but a moral one.

5. Test for right vs. right paradigms.

6. Apply the three decision-making frameworks.

7. Investigate "trilemma" options, in which one seeks a creative resolution which satisfies all values at stake.

8. Make the decision.

evisit and reflect on the decision later (Kidder, 1995, pgs. 183-186).

A decision maker who uses these tools will have a better chance of correctly analyzing the problem, and coming up with a workable solution. As Kidder clearly illustrates in the book, some decisions are compromises, and some are simply ethically sound from the beginning. Each problem is unique, and so is each solution. Managers must be able to recognize when compromise is the best solution, and when it…...

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References

Kidder, Rushworth M. (1996). How Good People Make Tough Choices. New York: William and Morrow, Company.

Management
"Critically evaluate the usefulness of rational decision-making for managers when making strategic choices"

Characteristics of strategic decisions

Long-term survival of the organization

Scope of organization activities

esources and competences / Competitive advantage

Then strategy is concerned with the strategic fit to the external environment

Stakeholders' expectations

Power in the organization - The expectations and worth of powerful agents in and around the company

Strategy as ational decision making

Set objectives

Understand problem

Determine options

Evaluate options

Improvement in strategic decision making

Involvement of different stakeholders

Organization should have focus and flexibility

Organization should learn the strategy

eferences

Introduction

Strategic management is the process of determining clear objectives of the company, and evaluation of internal and external environment in order to form a strategy solution, implement it, assess the progression, and make adjustments accordingly. In this report we will discuss the usefulness of rationale decision making for managers while making strategic choices. The roles of global managers and their decision making limits will be highlighted. The discussion related to the…...

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References

Bazer. M 2006, 'Judgement in Managerial decision making', Ed. 6th, New York, Publisher, Wiley.

Bontempo, R., Lobel, S. & Triandis. H 1990, 'Compliance and value internalization in Brazil & the U.S. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology', 20, pp., 200-213

Cooke, S & Slack, N 1991, 'Making Management Decisions', Ed. 2nd, Publisher, Prentice Hall.

David Hunger & Thoman L.Wheelen 2010, 'Strategic Management and business policy' Ed.12th, Saint Peterburg, Florida, Publisher, Prentice Hall.

Thus, I was faced with a situation, which involved an opportunity cost irrespective of the choice made.
This realization finally led me to exercising my critical thinking ability. In other words, I followed a process of compiling and organizing relevant data and thoughts, which I felt would enable logical thinking and a well thought out decision. On completion of this exercise, I realized that I would necessarily have to seek further guidance in solving my problem since the alternatives I faced continued to be equally attractive.

It was at this point in time that I realized the need for a good decision making model. With this knowledge, I set out to research various decision making models, finally settling for the rational model, which seemed to be most appropriate to the situation I faced. Indeed, I found the rational model to be highly effective since it is based on an economic view…...

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References

Hardman, D., & Harries, C. (2002, Feb). How Rational Are We? The Psychologist.

Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004:  http://www.fortunecity.com/emachines/e11/86/decision.html 

Lahti, R.K. (1996). Group Decision Making within the Organization: Can Models

Help? Center for the Study of Work Teams, University of North Texas. Retrieved September 19, 2004: http://www.workteams.unt.edu/reports/lahti.htm

This also includes making sure that bias is not an influence in the decision making process.
Conclusion

Change is often brought about by internal and external factors. The desired change in any organization cannot be brought about without implementing organizational change strategies. The entire process requires assessing, planning, implementing, benchmarking and keeping an eye on the goals and objectives of the organization. To bring about the preferred changes a strong, secure and motivated leader is necessary. In this fast paced world where each and every company fights to survive and grow, the leader must be able to expand vision and unite the organization. Adjusting to new competitive and market demands is a significant instrument for both organizational and personal survival. To bring about a desired change in an organization careful formulation of organization change strategy in order to address the key variables that affect the change outcome is required (Strategies to…...

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References

Allwood, C, & Salo, I 2012, 'Decision-making styles and stress', International Journal of Stress Management, 19, 1, pp. 34-47, viewed 21 March 2012.

By, R 2005, 'Organisational Change Management: A Critical Review', Journal of Change Management, 5, 4, pp. 369-380, viewed 21 March 2012.

Decision Making Confidence. 2012. A Variety of Rational Decision Making Models. [ONLINE] Available at:   [Accessed 21 March 12].http://www.decision-making-confidence.com/rational-decision-making-models.html .

National Defense University. n.d. Strategic Leadership and Decision Making. [ONLINE] Available at: [Accessed 21 March 12].http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/ndu/strat-ldr-dm/pt1ch4.html.

quantum and incremental technological change? Why are these types of change important to organizations?
Quantum and incremental technological changes are distinguished as two separate forces in terms of their impact upon organizations. Quantum changes are conceptualized as technological changes that result "in the innovation of new kinds of goods and services, such as development of the Internet and the development of genetic engineering" (Promoting innovation, 2014,-Page Out). Quantum changes thus generate the necessity for new business models. A good example of this is the creation of Netflix as a way of disseminating movies and television shows vs. The old model of Blockbuster which sold items via brick-and-mortar stores. Blockbuster's model quickly became defunct because of quantum changes in technology. In contrast, "incremental technological change is change that refines existing technology and leads to gradual improvements or refinements in products over time, such as Intel's incremental improvements to its original microprocessor"…...

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References

Promoting innovation, product development, and entrepreneurship. (2014). Page Out. Retrieved:

http://www.pageout.net/user/www/i/c/icpm/ms1%202nd/Ch1-8_review.pdf

Organizational decision-making. (2014). Management 481. Retrieved from:

http://faculty.wiu.edu/E-Solymossy/Presentations/MGT%20481/Organizational%20Decision-Making.pdf

William Styron's novel Sophie's Choice presents an almost unimaginably terrible moral dilemma to the reader. In the novel, the character Sophie and her two children are taken to the Nazi death camp Auschwitz-irkenau during the Nazi purge of the Jews. When entering the camp and being examined by an SS officer that is also a doctor, she tells the doctor that there has been a mistake, that she is not Jewish, but Catholic, and that she should be spared. Allegedly sympathizing with her, the doctor then allows Sophie a "reward," and her reward is to be able to save one of her children -- but she must choose which one is to be saved and which one is to die right there on the spot. There are several ways that one could ultimately view Sophie's decision to save Jan, her elder boy, such as using a Kantian, a utilitarian, or…...

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Bibliography

Honderich, Ted, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York: Oxford UP, 1995.

Styron, William. Sophie's Choice. New York: Random House, 1999.

12% of the departments reported their officers are not fitted for body armor, other than receiving a size that approximates their body size. Given the importance of fit to the proper functioning of body armor, this percentage is of some concern. 90% of the reporting agencies do not conduct inspections to ensure that officers' body armor fits well and/or is maintained properly. Of the few agencies that do conduct these inspections, most frequently, inspections for fit are conducted only once a year or less. 78% of law enforcement agencies surveyed do not have a database or automated record system for a body armor replacement schedule and nearly one-quarter of agencies have no policy concerning replacement of body armor so it's difficult to ascertain how often they actually replace their armor (Police Executive esearch Forum, 2009).
Discussion

Zakhary and Carnes (2007) report gaining acceptance of concealable body armor has been difficult. Originally…...

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References

Police Executive Research Forum (2009). The BJA/PERF body armor national survey: Protecting the nation's law enforcement officers. Retrieved August 20, 2010, from:  http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA/pdf/PERF_BodyArmor.pdf 

U.S. Department of Justice (1998, October). Selection and application guide to policde body armor, National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Guide 100-98. Retrieved August 20, 2010, from:  http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/169587.pdf 

Zakhary, Y.A., & Carnes, P. (2007, December ). Baiiistic body armor: a chief's refreasher course. The police Chief, Vol.74, No.12. Retrieved August 20, 2010, from:  http://policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1340&issue_id=122007

Rational choice theory is an economic principle that assumes individuals make decisions based on rational calculations aimed at maximizing their benefits or utility. This theory suggests that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of various choices and select the option that offers the greatest payoff.

Rational choice theory is based on the idea that individuals are rational actors who make decisions based on self-interest and the information available to them. This theory is often used to explain various behaviors, such as consumer choices, voting decisions, and criminal behavior.

Overall, rational choice theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals make decisions....

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory, a prominent sociological perspective, posits that individuals make decisions and engage in behaviors based on careful calculation and rational evaluation of potential outcomes. This theory emphasizes the role of individual agency, rationality, and utility maximization in understanding human behavior.

Key Assumptions:

Individuals are rational: They possess the cognitive abilities to make informed decisions and calculate the potential costs and benefits of various actions.
Individuals are utility-maximizers: They strive to choose actions that will yield the greatest benefit or satisfaction.
Individuals act in their own self-interest: They prioritize their own goals and desires when making decisions.
Individuals....

Literature reviews on the psychological factors impacting Indian retail investors decisions provide valuable insights into the various cognitive biases and emotional influences that drive individuals to make investment choices. Researchers have conducted numerous studies aiming to understand how psychological factors such as overconfidence, loss aversion, herd behavior, and cognitive dissonance affect investors decision-making processes. These reviews serve to consolidate existing knowledge in the field and highlight the importance of considering psychological aspects in financial decision-making.

One of the key insights from literature reviews is the prevalence of overconfidence among Indian retail investors. Studies have shown that individuals tend to overestimate....

1. The Power of Puzzles: Using puzzles and brain teasers as a tool to develop logical thinking skills in teachers.

2. Case Studies in Critical Thinking: Analyzing real-life scenarios and case studies to help teachers improve their logical reasoning abilities.

3. The Art of Argumentation: Exploring techniques and strategies for teachers to effectively engage in logical arguments and debates.

4. Gamifying Logical Thinking: Incorporating game-based learning approaches to teach logical thinking skills to teachers.

5. Mind Mapping for Educators: Introducing teachers to the concept of mind mapping as a visual tool for organizing thoughts and enhancing logical thinking.

6. The Role of Metacognition in Teaching....