Labeling Theory
Criminality is an unfortunate but inevitable component of human society. As much as people would like to believe that there is a way to create a type of community that has no crime, psychologists and other experts in the field of criminology have done research and created various hypotheses which show that criminality is actually an inevitability under any circumstances where large numbers of human beings interact and then create a system of laws. herever there is a system of laws, there will be at least a few people who choose to behave in ways antithetical to those laws. Among the many theories that have been explored about the potential reasons for criminality, perhaps the most interesting and most logical is the hypothetical argument which is referred to as the labeling theory.

Labeling is the process by which an individual is identified by the society in which they live according…...

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Works Cited:

Lilly, J. Robert. Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA:

SAGE. 2011. Print.

Siegel, Larry J. Criminology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage. 11th ed. 2012. Print.

Townsend, Kerry. "Frank Tannenbaum: 'Dramatization of Evil.'" Web. 2012.

Labeling Theory of Deviance
Labeling theory integrate well into radical criminology as it perceives criminal behavior to be defined by society. The powerful in the society like the judges, parents, police, to mention but a few tend to label the less powerful. Ones conduct is never classified as right or wrong but as a deviant behavior. It is not only criminal behaviors that are treated as deviant. The society's alcoholics and the mentally hill are also perceived to be showcasing deviant behaviors. Labeling leads to creation of stigma and modification of self-image (Wright, Gronfein, & Owens, 2000). The element of stigma comes about when the public takes to condemning and exclusion of a criminal. The criminal is avoided and treated with suspicion. He is barred from certain types of employments (Macionis & Gerber, 2011). Their own families may even reject them. The police also give them undue attention. The element of…...

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References List

Gottfredson, M.R. & Hirschi, T. (1990). A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, California:

Macionis, J.J. & Gerber, L.M. (2011). Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Canada.

Paternoster, R. (1987). The Deterrent Effect (If the Perceived Certainty and Severity Of

Punishment: A Review of the Evidence and Issues. Justice Quarterly 4, 173-218.

Labeling Theory
Originating in sociology and criminology, labeling theory (also known as social reaction theory) was developed by sociologist Howard S. Becker (1997). Labeling theory suggests that deviance, rather than constituting an act, results from the societal tendency of majorities to negatively label those individuals perceived as deviant from norms. Essentially, labeling theory involves how the self-identity and behavior of individuals determines or influences the terms used to describe or classify such individuals, and is associated with the concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping. The theory was prominent in the 1960s and 1970s, and some modified versions of the theory have developed. Unwanted descriptors or categorizations (including terms related to deviance, disability or a diagnosis of mental illness) may be rejected on the basis that they are merely "labels," often with attempts to adopt a more constructive language in its place. Labeling theory is also closely related to interactionism and…...

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References

Akers, R.L., Sellers, C.S. (2004). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application, 4th Edition. Roxbury Publishing Company, Los Angeles, California.

Becker, H. Outsiders. 1963 (1997). New York, NY: Free Press.

Bench, L.L. And Allen, T.D. (2003). Investigating the Stigma of Prison Classification: An Experimental Design. Prison Journal, 83, 4, 367-382.

Durkheim, Emile (1897) [1951]. Suicide: a study in sociology. The Free Press.

Labeling Theory and Juvenile Crime
Do we perform to expectations? One study of gifted children suggested that this was the case: in an experiment, teachers were told that certain pupils in their classroom had tested as 'gifted.' Almost immediately, the teachers began to treat these children differently, and the children began to perform at a higher standard. However, the teachers had actually been intentionally misinformed -- the children had been selected at random. Similarly, in the famous 'brown eyes vs. blue eyes' experiment conducted by educator Jane Elliot, a class of children was divided into blue-eyed and brown-eyed children, and the brown-eyed children were treated as second-class citizens. The blue-eyed children's scholastic performance improved, simply because of the positive reinforcement they received for their behavior (A class divided, 2011, PBS).

The notion that 'labeling' certain individuals in a positive or negative fashion can be a self-fulfilling prophesy is borne out by experimental…...

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References

Becker, Howard. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. London: Macmillan.

A class divided. (2011). PBS. Retrieved September 24, 2011 at  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/ 

Lemert, E.M. (1967). Human deviance, social problems and social control. Englewood Cliffs:

Prentice-Hall).

Labeling Theory: Theories of Deviance In sociology and criminology, labeling theorists were among the first to suggest that crime was not produced by inherent defects within the individual’s biology or character, but rather was a social construction. Labeling theorists suggested that crime was the result of society’s need to label certain individuals as deviant. This labeling became a self-fulfilling prophesy, to the point that the labeled individuals made their deviant label a part of their identity. Labeling is often used against individuals who are racially, ethnically or socio-economically determined to be abnormal or aberrant, and thus has the effect of creating ostracized groups of entire classes of people. It is ultimately an unproductive concept both for society as well as victimizes the individuals who are labeled and creates rather than prevents the existence of a criminal underclass.
Symbolic Interactionalism
The concept of labeling theory first arose in the early 1960s, when Howard Becker…...

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References

Disproportionate minority contact and juvenile justice. (2014). Coalition for Juvenile Justice

Retrieved from: minority-contact-and-status-offenses/

Hadjimatheou, K. (2016). Criminal labelling, publicity, and punishment. Law and Philosophy,

35: 567–593.

The labeling theory of crime. (2016). Revise Sociology. Retrieved from:

https://revisesociology.com/2016/08/20/labelling-theory-crime-deviance/

What is restorative justice? (2018). The Center for Restorative Justice. Retrieved from:

http://restorativejustice.org/#sthash.vipBPSuK.dpbshttps://csgjusticecenter.org/youth/publications/disproportionate-

Labeling theory The labeling theory is one of the various social behavior theories that seek to explain the cause of deviant behaviors within the society. Here, the theorists tend to describe deviant behavior as behavior that which becomes deviant only when labeled so. This approach tends to explain why the labeling theorists are not much interested in what causes the primary deviation. They tend to shelve the question of what causes primary deviation and tend to assume that the infarction of norms is distributed fairly evenly throughout the different social groups but they take the line that for various reasons that authorities notice and label only certain individuals. The labelists assume that all are fundamentally alike, before the effects of labeling sets in. They tend to assume that no individually is innately motivated to act in a deviant manner and no one has some traits impelling him to do so. This…...

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References

Bernburg J.G., (2009). Labeling Theory. Retrieved September 30, 2018 from

DeRoche C., (2015). Labels in Education: The Role of Parents and Parental Cultural Capital in Acquiring Diagnoses and Educational Accommodations. Retrieved September 30, 2018 from https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&ved=2ahUKEwjb_Z2ZsOTdAhWlx4UKHUPiAzsQFjAHegQIChAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sfu.ca%2Fcje%2Findex.php%2Fcje-rce%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F1870%2F1811&usg=AOvVaw3b_VVgVRHmUTXFWRl09WTE

Knutsson J., (1977). Labeling theory: A critical Examination. Retrieved September 30, 2018 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/47664NCJRS.pdf

Scimecca J., (1977). Labeling Theory and Personal Construct Theory: Toward the Measurement of Individual Variation. Retrieved September 30, 2018 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a3df/cc1e933604b2e4efdfc37912f942c6e535be.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226795096_Labeling_Theory

This in turn more often than not leads the stigmatized to acquire more and more deviant and possibly criminal identities (Lanier & Henry, 1998).
There can, of course, be other antecedents prior to labeling that can enhance the process of delinquency in juveniles. Mental and/or psychological impairments must also be considered as a contributing factor. Certain of these attributes can also contribute to highly suggestible levels in regards to behavior and allow socially sensitive entities to be easily swayed by stigma and stereotype.

Such deficits in neuropsychological functioning, such as self-control (especially impulse control), may serve to maintain antisocial behaviour throughout life. In contrast... antisocial behaviour that emerges during adolescence is, on this account, the result of an individual reaching biological maturity prior to reaching social maturity (where he or she has legal access to such liberties to consume alcohol, and operate a motor vehicle). (Carroll, Hemingway, Bower, Ashman, Houghton &…...

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References

Adams, M.S., Robertson, C.T., Gray-Ray, P., & Ray, M.C. (2003). Labeling and Delinquency. Adolescence, 38(149), 171-177.

Barlow, H.D. (Ed.). (1995). Crime and Public Policy: Putting Theory to Work. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Bartusch, D.J., & Matsueda, R.L. (1996). Gender, Reflected Appraisals, and Labeling: A Cross-Group Test of an Interactionist Theory of Delinquency. Social Forces, 75(1), 145-176.

Braithwaite, J. (1995). 11 Reintegrative Shaming, Republicanism, and Policy. In Crime and Public Policy: Putting Theory to Work, Barlow, H.D. (Ed.) (pp. 191-205). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Criminal Justice Theories
Labeling theory suggests that criminal behavior can be the result of a person being considered a criminal. "People become stabilized in criminal roles when they are labeled as criminal, are stigmatized, develop criminal identities, are sent to prison, and are excluded from conventional roles. eintegrative responses are less likely to create defiance and a commitment to crime" (Patchin, 2011). Anyone who has ever filled out a job application and seen the question asking about criminal convictions understands that there is not only a social stigma attached to criminal behavior, but also that even past criminal behavior can impact a person's entire future. When non-criminal options are not available because of past criminal behavior, one can anticipate that a person may be more likely to reoffend.

Conflict theory focuses on the idea that people are not seeking consensus, but are instead looking to exert power. It is "the view that…...

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References

Patchin, J. (2011). Criminological theory summaries. Retrieved October 29, 2011 from University of Wisconsin Eau Claire website:

 http://www.uwec.edu/patchinj/crmj301/theorysummaries.pdf 

See, E. (2004). Student study guide for Ronald L. Akers and Christine S. Sellers'

Criminological theories: Introduction, evaluation, and applications, 4th Edition. Retrieved October 29, 2011 from Roxbury Publishing Company website: http://roxbury.net/images/pdfs/ct4ssg.pdf

Social Labeling Theory: Juvenile Delinquency
Social labeling theory was originally developed by the theorist Howard Becker to explain why certain individuals believe that a path of crime will be more advantageous to them then following social norms. Becker suggested that criminals often internalize the label of deviancy at a young age, believing that since more conventional and positive labels cannot apply to them, celebrating deviancy is the only possible path to happiness and some form of social approval, even if approval only comes from fellow deviants. Labeled criminals come to believe this, not because they are innately wicked or have psychological problem but because people labeled as criminals are often from historically disadvantaged groups, such as discriminated-against minorities, the poor, and those denied the advantages of education (“The Labeling Theory of Crime”).
Labeling theory also suggests that society is unwilling to label certain groups of people who do commit crimes because they…...

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Works Cited

“Disproportionate Minority Contact and Status Offenses.” Coalition for Juvenile Justice. Web. 7 Apr 2018. files/DMC%20Emerging%20Issues%20Policy%20Brief%20Final_0.pdf

Fantz, Ashley. “Outrage for six-month sentence for Brock Turner in Stanford rape case.” CNN. 6 Jun 2016. Web. 7 Apr 2018. https://www.cnn.com/2016/06/06/us/sexual-assault-brock-turner-stanford/index.html

“The Labeling Theory of Crime.” Revise Sociology. 20 Aug 2016. Web. 7 Apr 2018. https://revisesociology.com/2016/08/20/labelling-theory-crime-deviance/

Shepherd, Robert. “Plea Bargaining in Juvenile Court.” Criminal Justice, 23 (3): 1-3 Web. 7 Apr 2018. https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publishing/criminal_justice_section_newsl etter/crimjust_cjmag_23_3_shepherd.authcheckdam.pd

http://www.juvjustice.org/sites/default/files/resource-

Talking Race and RacismIf race is a system of power designed to benefit some at the expense of others, as Ijeomo Oluo (n.d.) states in her speech at Google, maybe we shouldnt be talking about race at all? Why talk about a subject that is only there in order to exalt some people and marginalize and oppress others? If that is how race is going to be used, why not just refuse to talk about race? Then that power play is no longer on the table: it is no longer an option. If one refuses to talk about race, to acknowledge racethat construct of race that is used to empower some at the expense of others now is without air and becomes lifeless and incapable of doing what those in power want it to do. Race plays right into the idea of labeling theory, after all, which is exactly what…...

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References

Bell Hooks- Talking Race and Racism -PDF

So You Want to Talk About Race?  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnybJZRWipg 

How to Have a Voice and Lean Into Conversations about Race  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IF--2vGj7Tg

My Views on Hate Crimes Although hate crime is often associated with some sort of violent crime motivated by a desire to hurt a group or person based on that group or person’s identity, Green, McFalls and Smith (2001) admit that hate crime is actually difficult “to define, measure and explain” (p. 479). The reason for the difficulty is that hate, in the obvious sense of a person persecuting another because the other person is different, is not always so explicitly manifested or expressed in the crime. In fact, it could be said that at some level hate is the motive behind all crime—hate for the state, hate for society, hate for the law, hate for one’s neighbor, hate for God, or even hate for one’s self. To make it even more complicated, Chakraborti and Garland (2009) argue that “hate crimes are not crimes in which the offender simply hates the victim, and in reality crimes do…...

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References

Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (2009). Hate crime: Impact, causes and responses. Sage Publications.

Green, D. P., McFalls, L. H., & Smith, J. K. (2001). Hate crime: An emergent research agenda. Annual review of sociology, 27(1), 479-504.

Spruill, L. (2020). Warren family returns home few months after hate crime incident. Retrieved from  

https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/local/2020/11/27/warren-family-returns-home-few-months-after-hate-crime-incident/ 

eflections Digital CriminologyBeing Mean Online and Cyber CrimeBroll and Huey (2015) point out that cyberbullying represents a gray area when it comes to criminal justice, legislation, policing, and prevention. Police prefer to address this matter through education, trying to teach young people and communities how to avoid cyberbullyingbut they also do not see every case of cyberbullying as a police matter. Part of the issue here is that there is no substantial legislation that would define cyberbullying as a criminal offense. Being mean to someone online, in other words, is hard to define and hard to outlawbut other questions do arise: such asis someone engaging in stalking that is a legitimate threat to another persons safety or privacy? Is someone engaging in abusive conduct online that is meant to harm the other person in a real way by, for example, getting the other person to commit suicide? These are real…...

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ReferencesLageson, S. E., & Maruna, S. (2018). Digital degradation: Stigma management in the internet age. Punishment & Society, 20(1), 113-133.Tirosh, N. (2017). Reconsidering the ‘Right to be Forgotten’–memory rights and the right to memory in the new media era. Media, Culture & Society, 39(5), 644-660.

Thus, even "victimless" deviant activities are regulated through various methods of formal and informal control. The deviancy ascribed to Brenda's teen pregnancy, for example, stems largely from the way she challenges the norms regarding sexual behavior. Conflict theorists believe that laws and norms do not reflect values of society as a whole, but only of the dominant segment.
Similarly, it could be said that Brenda's drug habit is a victimless crime. If she pursues reasonable precautions, such as avoiding driving and staying in a private place, her drug use does not differ much from smoking or alcohol consumption. However, since drug use is frowned upon by the social elite, Brenda is seen as a criminal.

Feminist theory

Similar to conflict and Marxist theories, feminist theorists see much social inequity in society.

This social inequity is one that divides the sexes. Early on in Brenda's life, the loss of job of her father meant…...

Theory-Guided Practice A relationship exists between theories, research, practical application, and education. The latter three, in fact, ought to be directed by the former. Further, research works inform education as well as practical application through offering evidences for nursing instruction- and care provision- related best practices. Education forms the context for learning. Educators need to base their teaching on scholarly evidences in the areas of learning/teaching, learning/teaching theories, and practice arena requirements. Practice contexts are where learners are taught, patients are provided evidence-based care, and nurses acquire experiences to aid them in formulating novel nursing theories and topics for future studies. Theory is the foundation for: 
· How to learn and teach nursing concepts like nursing theories, brain-based education, neurocognitive studies, principles/frameworks, learning approaches, adult learning models, and educational models.
· How to frame researches and understand findings within professional settings, and how to develop the profession for ensuring most efficient practice.
· How…...

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One study examined 595 participants, who filled out questionnaires for the research and concluded that social bonding issues play a part in social deviance including the use of drugs and alcohol (Pawlak, 1993).

elating Theory to Social Issue

elating the two criminology theories to the current social issue of adolescent substance abuse, is relatively easy to do. In each of the theories, studies have been conducted to ascertain the amount, if any, of substance abuse that the theories support. Both of the theories have relatively clear markers for how they impact the possibility of adolescent substance abuse.

The research into the labeling theory, clearly indicates that adolescents often develop their self-image by the reaction of society to their existence. If a teenager believes he is labeled as a problem, or a throw-away child, he will most likely develop poor self-esteem, and one of the consequences of that low self-esteem, may turn out to…...

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References

Harrison, Larry R (1997) Control theory, labeling theory, and the delivery of services for drug abuse to adolescents. Adolescence Marcos, a.C., & Johnson, R.E. (1988). Cultural patterns and causal processes in adolescent drug use: The case of Greeks vs. Americans. The International Journal of the Addictions, 23, 545-572.

Ray, M.C., & Downs, W.R. (1986). An empirical test of labeling theory using longitudinal data. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 23, 169-194.

Pawlak, Rebecca (1993) Effects of social bonds and childhood experiences on alcohol abuse and smoking. The Journal of Social Psychology

Choosing how to start your essay on deviance depends on the type of essay you are writing and the type of coursework you are trying to complete.  Deviance is a broad topic that is covered in many of the soft sciences, including (but not limited to) sociology, psychology, and criminology.  It is also discussed in the humanities, particularly philosophy and history.  Therefore, we would probably begin the essay with two things: a definition of deviance and an explanation of how that definition fits into the context of the essay we are writing. 

Generally, deviance is a sociological concept....

Here are some good suggestions:

Scarlet Letter Essay Titles

1. Puritanical Standards Undermine the Christian Principle of Charity in Hawthorne’s Scarlett Letter
2. The Love-Child of Hester Prynne:  Writing Straight with Crooked Lines
3. Hawthorne’s Scarlett Letter is a 19^th Century Takedown of Cancel Culture
4. Modern Day Cancel Culture Rejected by Hawthorne in The Scarlett Letter
5. Labeling Theory as an Explanation for the Use of the “A” in The Scarlett Letter
6. How the Two-Faced Puritanical Ideology of American Society is Reflected in Hawthorne’s Scarlett Letter
7. Redemption through Repentance, Confession and Penance:  Salvation in The Scarlett Letter
8. A Catholic Approach to Christianity Illuminates The Scarlett Letter
9. Why The Scarlett Letter is the Great American....