Polygraph
There has always been a search for a way in the social order regarding the degree of truthfulness or dishonesty in an individual. History reveals that there has been almost a universal constant endeavor to uncover the falsehood and know the truth. The Ancient Chinese, Arabs and Indians are known to have used methods from torture to duel fight for obtaining the truth and distinguish innocent and guilty (White Jr., 2001, p. 483).

This quest of differentiating the liar and the honest still goes on today. One of the modern-day methods to distinguish truth from fraud is the use of the polygraph (lie detector). The polygraph is both favored and criticized by the modern man. It is defended on the basis of its success as innumerable criminals have confessed and numerous spies and terrorists have been uncovered when tested through the polygraph. Moreover, its capability in revealing the employee theft and…...

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References

Brewer, N. & Wilson, C. (Eds.). (1995). Psychology and Policing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved February 7, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=83417315 

Faigman, D.L., Fienberg, S.E., & Stern, P.C. (2003, Fall). The Limits of the Polygraph: The Time Has Come to Be Truthful about Its Reliability and Usefulness. Issues in Science and Technology, 20, 40+. Retrieved February 8, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002041727 

Lewis, J.A., & Cuppari, M. (2009). The Polygraph: the Truth Lies within. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 37(1), 85+. Retrieved February 7, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035350997 

Warner, W.J. (2005, April). Polygraph Testing: a Utilitarian Tool. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 74, 10+. Retrieved February 8, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5037572267

Application of Polygraph Testing in Selection
c. Methodological Issues in Application of Polygraph Testing

VI. Officer Selection Outcomes with and without Polygraph Testing

a. Selection of Police Officers without Polygraph Testing

b. Selection of Police Officers with Polygraph Testing

c. Police Misconduct Incidents among Officers Selected without Polygraph Testing

d. Police Misconduct Incidents among Officers Selected with Polygraph Testing

VII. Conclusions

a. The Effect of Polygraph Testing on Hiring

b. The Effect of Polygraph Testing on Officer Integrity

c. Significance of Results for Police Hiring

Research Questions (RQ)

How effective is polygraph testing in the promotion of integrity among police officers.

Limitations of the Study

Lack of available and/or reliable data -- Data regarding the internal employee selection procedures of police departments may be restricted. Data regarding the number of police misconduct incidents in specific police departments may be rare or spotty.

Definition of Terms

Polygraph - a polygraph, or lie detector, is a machine that measures the physiological responses of an individual that accompany…...

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Bibliography

Territo, L., Swanson, C.R., & Chamelin, N.C. (1977). The police personnel selection process. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Pub.

Gatewood, R.D., & Feild, H.S. (1987). Human resource selection. Chicago: Dryden Press.

Polygraph eliability and Validity
The validity and reliability of polygraph testing has been a subject of debate since such testing was first implemented almost a century ago (OTA, 1983, par. 1). Abundant research has been done on modern polygraph machines and techniques that has served to validate their use and their accuracy, however controversy still remains in the minds of many (Gougler et al., 2011, 196-201). One way to go about determining the reliability and validity of a polygraph machine would, of course, be to look at the research that has been conducted on the machine previously if available, as it truly takes years and abundant study to ensure these features to a degree worthy of scientific scrutiny (Gougler et al., 2011; 197). Assuming such research is unavailable or is untrustworthy, however, there are other more direct methods that can be employed to effectively determine how valid and reliable a polygraph…...

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References

Gougler, M., Nelson, R., Handler, M., Krapohl, D., Shaw, P. & Bierman, L. (2011). Executive Summary of the Meta-Analytic Survey of Criterion Accuracy of Validated Polygraph Techniques. Accessed 16 March 2012.  http://www.polygraph.org/files/executive_summary_meta_analytic_survey_apa_2012.pdf 

OTA. (1983). Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation. Accessed 16 March 2012.  http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ota/contro.html

(p. 214).
In short, even if one is willing to overlook all of the glaring flaws with polygraphs and the ultimate impossibility of accurately measuring their accuracy, the best that can be said about them is that they detect deception better than random chance. Though it likely need not be said, "better than flipping a coin" seems a paltry justification for the still-widespread use of polygraphs in the criminal justice system.

This study has attempted to demonstrate that polygraphs are not only ineffective, but that their widespread use actually contributes to shoddy police work and encourages a culture of arrogance and unaccountability by widening the gap between scientific evidence and those who claim to practice scientifically investigation methods. Two large-scale studies of the available literature regarding the accuracy and efficacy of polygraph testing, conducted twenty years apart, found that the many variables present during the administration of a polygraph test preclude…...

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Works Cited

Gannon, T. A, Beech, A. R, & Ward, T. (2008). Does the polygraph lead to better risk prediction for sexual offenders?. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(1), 29-44.

Grubin, D. (2010). The polygraph and forensic psychiatry. Journal of American Acad Psychiatry

Law, 38(4), 446-451.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES, Committee to Review the Scientific Evidence on the Polygraph Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences and Committee on National Statistics. (2003). The polygraph and lie detection. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Public policy makers in general and the police agency in particular should refrain from using the polygraph test in their selection of employees, particularly since, at worst, they may end up including potential robbers and murderers as part of their organization. The purpose of the followign study is to evalaute these conclusions by investigating the efficacy of polygraph tests in assessing police candidates

Source

Brett, a. Phillips, M., & Beary, J (1986)PEDICTIVE POWE of the POLYGAPH: CAN the "LIE DETECTO" EALLY DETECT LIAS? Psychophysiology, http://www.american-buddha.com/art.predictivepowerpolygraphbeary.htm

The positive predictive value of the polygraph (ie, the proportion of positive test results that are true positives) was assessed, on the evidence of the best published data for the sensitivity and specificity of the device. In many screening or investigative situations, the predictive value would be poor; most of the positive results would be false positives.

Garwood M., Ansley N., (1983) the accuracy and utility of polygraph testing.…...

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Researchers conducted mail surveys to obtain the opinions of 2 groups of scientists from relevant disciplines: members of the Society for Psychophysiological Research and Fellows of the American Psychological Association's Division 1 (General Psychology). Survey return rates were high (91% and 74%, respectively). Most of the respondents believed that polygraphic lie detection is not theoretically sound, claims of high validity for these procedures cannot be sustained, the lie test can be beaten by easily learned countermeasures, and polygraph test results should not be admitted into evidence in courts of law

Saxe L., Dougherty D., Cross T. (1983). Scientific validity of polygraph testing: A research review and evaluation. Technical memorandum OTA-TM-H-15. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.

Reviews the literature on field and analog polygraph testing to aid Congressional consideration of efforts by the U.S. Department of Defense to expand use of polygraph tests to large numbers of government employees with access to classified information. It is noted that the validity of polygraph testing has yet to be established. The validity of control question analog studies is considered in relation to polygraph validity, and the effects of S. characteristics, setting, and countermeasures on validity are discussed.

Detecting Deception
Polygraph Testing: A Critique

One of the most commonly used methods for detecting deception is the polygraph test. This is a procedure that combines skillful questioning techniques with physical measurements in order to determine stress levels that would indicate the presence of deception. It is widely used and is reliable enough to be used in a court of law, if it is properly handled and interpreted by an expert in the field. New advances are taking this same base for technology and increasing its scope and range. However, there are issues of reliability that do come up, especially in regards to when a suspect uses counter measures to throw off the test. Thus, polygraphs are excellent tools for detecting deception, but should not be trusted entirely on their own. Instead, they should be used in a combined effort with other interviewing techniques to really be effective in detecting deception.

Discussion

Using…...

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References

American Psychological Association. (2013). The truth about lie detectors. Research in Action. Web. http://www.apa.org/research/action/polygraph.aspx

Cooper, Barry S., Herve, Hugues, & Yuille, John C. "Evaluating truthfulness: Detecting truths and lies in forensic contexts.

The next step is evidence collection. Processing a crime scene without disturbing the evidences is a difficult task and investigators should take every precaution to gather evidence without affecting the crime scene. (GSA)
Crime scene stepping pads' can be used for walking around the area without damaging potential evidences. Photographs and video must be taken before proceeding with the rough sketching around the crime scene. For this purpose 'crime scene sketch kits' must be used. Evidence should be gathered using appropriate evidence collection tools so as not to erase the fingerprints or cause any other damage. It is important for the investigator to carefully consider and gather even microparticle evidences using micro evidence gathering kit. Evidences gathered should be properly catalogued and stored in 'tamper resistant evidence bags'. Evidence collection envelopes with transparent or viewing capabilities are appropriate as they allow for physical examination of the evidence without having opening…...

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Bibliography

Kevin Bonsor, "How Lie Detectors Work," Retrieved on 21st May 2007, at  http://www.howstuffworks.com/lie-detector.htm 

EPIC, "Polygraph Testing," Retrieved on 21st May 2007, at  http://www.epic.org/privacy/polygraph/ 

BCSSE, "The Polygraph and Lie Detection," Retrieved on 21st May 2007, at  http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10420&page=212 

Gerry Everding (2004), "Research casts doubt on voice-stress lie detection technology," retrieved on 21st May 2007, at  http://news-info.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/669.html

Since the polygraph is inadmissible in many criminal courts, should it be incorporated in employment decisions in regards to government and law enforcement positions? Please provide a rationale for your position.

On one hand, there is a fundamental difference between using polygraphs in criminal cases and employment decisions: namely, the burden of proof in criminal cases is much higher, as it is in relation to civil cases. Therefore, to qualify as an appropriate form of evidence in criminal cases, polygraphs would have to satisfy a much higher standard of reliability and infallibility. Likewise, the magnitude of the consequences are vastly different in criminal cases and the outcome of employment decisions based on evidence that may not be reliable.

Meanwhile, there are still independent reasons to question the appropriateness of polygraph results even in employment decisions. Specifically, even when polygraphs are administered and interpreted properly, they provide, at most, an accurate reading of…...

There are three types of stimuli used, which are:
1) Targets;

2) Irrelevant; and 3) Probes.

These are used "in the form of words, pictures, or sounds..." which a computer presents for a second or even a partial second. Incoming stimulus, if it is worth noting, results in a P-300, which is an electrical brain response. The P-300 is part of a MERMER or a memory and encoding related multifaceted electroencephalographic response, which is a larger brain response.

Originally event related potentials (ERP) was the method used for studying brain activity information processing. The limitation of the ERP is that it causes elimination of all patterns that are complex and results in the meaningful signals also being lost. The multifaceted electroencephalographic response analysis or MERA was developed due to the limitation of the ERP. Farwell found that incorporation of this technique resulted in the elicitation of MERMER when the individual being tested recognized…...

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Bibliography

Taylor, Erich (2007) a New Wave of Police Interrogation? Brain Fingerprinting, the Constitutional Privilege against Self-Incrimination and Hearsay Jurisprudence

WWW.jltp.uiuc.edu/works/Taylor.htm

Pope, Harrison (nd) the Emperor's Tailoring. FMS Foundation Newsletter. Online available at http://www.fmsfonline.org/fmsf96.d31.html

Stetler, Russell and Wayland, Kathleen (2004) Capital Cases - Dimension of Mitigation. June 2004. Online available at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:8FdkQI0WFDsJ:www.fd.org/pdf_lib/Capital%2520CasesDimensions%2520of%2520Mitigation%2520Stetler.pdf+MRI:+forensics,+determination+of+guilt+or+innocence&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=50&gl=us.

Creswell, 2009). Given the range of resources that will come under study in this research, a meta-analysis is not readily applicable. Typically, with a retrospective study of this scale, more research is discarded than retained for analysis. Further, a number of large studies have been conducted on this general topic, including research commissioned by Congress ("CNSTAT," 2003; OTA," 1983). Using a descriptive research approach, the researcher will utilize primary and secondary data sources (Creswell, 2009). Document review will constitute a large proportion of the secondary research data. Primary research will consist of interviews with select Individuals in professional positions who are privy to agency information about the use and outcomes of polygraphs.
Instrumentation

The corpus of literature will provide a substantive amount of secondary data for analysis and will inform the direction of further efforts at primary research. A comprehensive literature review will be employed to identify pertinent documents for study.…...

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References

Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences and Education (BCSSE) and Committee on National Statistics (CNSTAT) (2003). The Polygraph and Lie Detection. United States National Research Council (Chapter 8: Conclusions and Recommendations, page 212

Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Iacono, W.G. (2001). Forensic 'lie detection': Procedures without scientific basis, Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1 (1), pp. 75-86.

Office of Technology Assessment (November 1983). Scientific validity of polygraph testing: A research review and evaluation.

Employee Privacy Torts
Issues relating to employee privacy have been at the forefront of businesses for many years. This has been fuelled by the dynamic workplace which changes constantly and also by employees and employers being more litigation-conscious. Technology has also spurred on employee privacy issues with e-mail and the internet being related to heightened concerns about vulnerability of employers to litigation. Many employers have thus exacerbated their concerns relating to employee privacy and especially monitoring of employee behavior. Employee privacy is respected in many of the large corporations. However, there still exist some breaches in employee privacy. Small business owners are at most risk as a result of their increased monitoring practices and close employer-employee interaction.

Historical background

oberson v. ochester Folding Box Company

One of the major cases that brought employee privacy to the limelight was oberson v. ochester Folding Box Company

Franklin Mills Co. decided to appeal the decision. The appellate found…...

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References

Anderson v. City of Philadelphia, 845 F. 2d 1216 (1988).

Borse v. Piece Goods Shop, 963 F.2d 611 (1991).

Burlington Industries, Inc. v. Ellerth, 524 U.S. 742 (1988).

City of Ontario v. Quon, 130 S.Ct. 2619, 560 U.S. (2010).

Employee Layoff
A friend in California has just lost his job in a layoff together with 98 other employees in the same private sector company. The company's administrators have told him that he was included in the recent layoff because of his refusal to take a lie detector test regarding some drugs that were found in his company locker. He also declined to take a drug test since he was afraid that a positive result would make the state child protection agency to take away custody of his children. This situation is an example of a scenario with legal ramifications on the basis of several regulations such as Polygraph Protection Act, Worker Adjustment and etraining Notification Act, Privacy laws, Drug Testing laws, and OSHA.

Generally, the use of lie detector tests in the workplace is not geared towards determining whether an employee is telling the truth but to examine whether the worker's…...

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References:

"Employees' Rights in the Workplace." (1999). The Maryland State Bar Association, Inc.

Retrieved May 9, 2014, from  http://www.msba.org/departments/commpubl/publications/brochures/workplace.asp 

"Lie Detector Tests." (2008). Can My Boss Do That? Retrieved May 9, 2014, from  http://www.canmybossdothat.com/category.php?id=269

The job may require x% travel, which might eliminate one of the candidates, etc. Essentially, hiring the female simply based on the demographics would discriminate against the other candidates and therefore, is illegal (Federal Laws, 2009).
Situation 5 - Our Company has a service contract with the U.S. Government (Department of Defense) to provide nurses for a military hospital. Contractual obligations require employees with patient contact to pass a physical exam and drug test; those handing fiscal matters must pass a drug and polygraph test. Because this contact is with the Federal Government, any employee is subject to laws under the Federal egister, Agencies affiliated with the Federal Government who require drug testing must follow standardized procedures established by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Organization, use certified SAMHSA testing facilities, and comply with appropriate privacy laws (Section 7 -- Drug Testing, 2010). The Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA)…...

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REFERENCES

Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, as Amended. (1990). United States Department of Justice. Retrieved from: http://www.ada.gov/pubs/ada.htm

Federal Laws Prohibiting Job Discrimination Questions and Answers. (2009). The U.S. Equal Opportunity Employment Commission. Retrieved from:   / facts/qanda.htmlhttp://www.eeoc.gov 

Section 7 -- Drug Testing. (2010). United States Department of Labor. Retrieved from:  http://www.dol.gov/elaws/asp/drugfree/drugs/screen92.asp 

The Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA). 2010. United States Department of Labor. Retrieved from:  http://www.dol.gov/compliance/laws/comp-eppa.htm

Sir:
I feel I must tell you that I was quite shocked and dismayed when I was notified of your decision to disqualify me for the position of deputy sheriff due to the use of alleged countermeasures during the lie detector testing. First, I would like to vehemently deny that I knowingly engaged in any activity designed to explicitly deceive the lie detector or the person operating it. Since it is alleged that I engaged in some countermeasures, I feel it is safe to assume that I passed the lie detector with no false statements as I have during a previous test. That is due to the fact that I answered every question asked of me as honestly as I could. If there is any question about this, I would think that I would be permitted to take the exam again, but I am being informed that I cannot do…...

Identify examples of problems dealing with educational levels, pay scale, and seniority.

Problems with educational levels, pay scale, and seniority are also issues with merged departments. Smaller departments may not have had the training opportunities that larger departments had, and their officers may not be as prepared or well versed in some areas, such as detective work or gang activities. This can affect pay scale, and different departments may have different scales that do not mesh into one overall scale. Benefits may be cut to save costs during a merger, too.

Which hiring standards related to the different departments in the merged cell are affected?

Hiring standards such as recruits from the police academy, educational requirements, and seniority are all effected by a merger. Each department may have different standards, and some officers may not meet requirements of more stringent agencies.

Polygraph and psychological exams are not required for some police agencies. Will all…...

A topic sentence on polygraph can be effective in capturing the reader's attention if it is well-crafted and intriguing. For example, a topic sentence that highlights the controversial nature of polygraph testing or its use in criminal investigations may pique the reader's curiosity and encourage them to continue reading to learn more. However, the effectiveness of a topic sentence ultimately depends on the specific wording and relevance to the reader's interests and background knowledge.
When crafting a topic sentence on polygraph, it is important to consider the target audience and what would resonate with them. For instance, if you are writing....

The Polygraph: A Contentious Tool in the Pursuit of Truth

In the realm of criminal investigations and pre-employment screenings, the polygraph, also known as a lie detector test, has long been a subject of intense debate. Proponents of this technology assert its efficacy in uncovering deception, while detractors question its reliability and accuracy. This essay delves into the multifaceted nature of the polygraph, exploring its historical origins, the scientific basis of its operation, and the controversies surrounding its use.

Historical Context and Scientific Basis

The concept of detecting deception through physiological responses traces its roots back to the 19th century. In 1895, the....