S. begins to spend billions on GDP, carbon credits and control devices and positive climate change progresses only slowly (Wojick, 2002).
In 2004 an international ad hoc Detection and Attribution Group looked at "natural drivers such as solar variability and volcanic activity" and decided that a large part of the entire warming trend over the past 50 years could be attributed to GHG increases, which backs up the IPC hird Assessment Report, concluding that "most of the global warming over the past 50 years is likely due to the increase in greenhouse gases" (IAHDAG, 2005, 1291-1314).
In 1999, MI did a study on the effects of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change and found that "a strategy for controlling multiple gases associated with greenhouse warming could reduce control costs by over 60%" compared with just controlling carbon dioxide (CO2) alone (Science Daily, 1999). Science Daily also has published an article stating the…...
mlaThe Kyoto Protocol includes a "flexible mechanism" which allows under-compensating economies to meet their limitations by purchasing GreenHouse Gas (GHG) emission reductions from those who have overcompensated and have excess allowances. These are called "carbon credits." To produce carbon credits for sale is desirable, compared to being obligated to purchase them because a country is producing too many GHG emissions (EIA, 1998). In the United States, because of the Kyoto Protocol, actual GDP losses are projected to "range from $102 to $437 billion dollars in 2010." Prices of offsets and carbon credits will skyrocket among those nations in the Annex I sector, setting the stage for a failure of the entire project. Seeing how as the effects on climate so far have been negligible, it is not hard to imagine how frustrating it is going to become when the U.S. begins to spend billions on GDP, carbon credits and control devices and positive climate change progresses only slowly (Wojick, 2002).
In 2004 an international ad hoc Detection and Attribution Group looked at "natural drivers such as solar variability and volcanic activity" and decided that a large part of the entire warming trend over the past 50 years could be attributed to GHG increases, which backs up the IPC Third Assessment Report, concluding that "most of the global warming over the past 50 years is likely due to the increase in greenhouse gases" (IAHDAG, 2005, 1291-1314).
In 1999, MIT did a study on the effects of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change and found that "a strategy for controlling multiple gases associated with greenhouse warming could reduce control costs by over 60%" compared with just controlling carbon dioxide (CO2) alone (Science Daily, 1999). Science Daily also has published an article stating the recent climate change might be attributable to the past 150 years, in which humans have released increasing quantities of GHG into earth's atmosphere, leading to increases in mean temperature. The IPCC has made the statement that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate." This is in reference to British law in which a certain amount of proof is necessary to place the fact into a realm "beyond reasonable doubt." The problem with the arguments whether or not GHGs actually affect climate is that it is still too early to tell what is going to happen when GHGs are removed. It has taken humans 150 years to get to the point where the earth's atmosphere has
The Court recognized the practical effect of having certain nations applying the Union standard in regard to an environmental protection and others not applying them. This recognition resulted in the Court's developing a principle to by-pass this discrepancy. This principle known as "the direct effect" has been applied by the Court in cases where the provisions of the directive are (i) sufficiently precise and clear, (ii) the alleged rights are unconditional, (iii) the provisions thoroughly define the legal relationship (implementation and application requirements), and, (iv) the time allowed to a Member State for implementation of the directive has expired. The practical effect of this application by the Court is to afford parties to any litigation the full legal rights set forth in the Union directive even though the specific nation involved has not enacted the directive as controlling law. Unfortunately, the Court of Justice has used the "direct effect"…...
Alternatives to the Kyoto Protocol
Climate Change
The effort to bring about effective changes in energy policy worldwide began with the emergence of scientific evidence showing greenhouse gas concentrations and global surface temperatures had both increased over a geologically short period of time, to unprecedented levels within the last 20,000 years (Betsill, 107). This evidence fueled a series of conferences during the last half of the 20th century. Midway through this series the first target for reducing greenhouse gas emissions was defined in Toronto, Canada, at the 1988 orld Conference on the Changing Atmosphere (Betsill, 106). The "Toronto Target" set a goal of reducing worldwide CO2 emissions to 20% below 1988 levels by 2005.
The Toronto conference may have set the first goal for mitigating rising surface temperatures, but getting countries around the world to agree has been extremely difficult. The structure within which global negotiations for reducing greenhouse gas emissions has occurred,…...
mlaWorks Cited
Betsill, Michele M. "Global Climate Change Policy: Making Progress or Spinning Wheels?" The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy, 2nd Edition. Eds. Regina S. Axelrod, David L. Downie, and Norman J. Vig. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 2005. 103-124. Print.
Hass, Peter M. "Forum: Climate Change Governance after Bali." Global Environmental Politics 8.3 (2008): 1-8. Print.
Victor, David G. "Toward Effective International Cooperation on Climate Change: Numbers, Interests and Institutions. Global Environmental Politics 6.3 (2006): 90-103. Print.
Increased agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and mining also contribute a significant share of emissions. In 1997, the United States emitted about one-fifth of total global greenhouse gases.
Changing Climate
Global average surface temperatures have increased 0.5-1.0°F since the late 19th century. The 20th century's 10 warmest years all occurred in the last 15 years of the century. Of these, 1998 was the warmest year on record. Snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere and floating ice in the Arctic Ocean have decreased. Globally, sea level has risen 4-8 inches over the past century. Worldwide precipitation over land has increased by about one percent. The frequency of extreme rainfall events has increased throughout much of the United States. Scientists expect that the average global surface temperature could rise 1-4.5°F (0.6-2.5°C) in the next fifty years, and 2.2-10°F (1.4-5.8°C) in the next century. Evaporation will increase as the climate warms, which will increase…...
mlaBibliography
Environmental Protection Agency http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/Climate.html
National Academies
National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalwarming.html
Emissions Trading
"A basic principle Economics comparative advantage: a country produces goods producing, bad. The traditional story includes relative endowments capital labor, capital intensity goods matters. Now add environmental externalities.
Comparative advantage in emissions trading: The environment and economics
Although it was not signed by the United States, at the time of its drafting, the Kyoto Protocol was considered a major advancement in attempts to curb global warming by limiting emissions. However, the international agreement also brought the controversial practice of emissions trading of pollutions credits to the forefront of the concerns of the world environmental movement. "Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not 'used' - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets" (International emissions trading, 2013, Kyoto). In other words, 'cleaner' nations could sell their credits to dirtier…...
mlaReferences
Emissions trading. (2013). ITEA. Retrieved from: http://www.ieta.org/emissions-trading
International emissions trading. (2013). Kyoto. Retrieved from:
http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/emissions_trading/items/2731.php
Ramsey, M. (2013).Tesla earns $40 million selling pollution credits. The Wall Street Journal.
A version of this is already in existence in the 17-nation Major Economies Forum. This has been a model of decorum and progress compared with what the world saw unfold at the climate talks (Sarwar and Chesterman, 2009).
One country in particular that did not come away from Copenhagen 15 with any warm and fuzzy feelings was that of Canada. Canada's once good reputation as an international leader has been seriously damaged because of its repeated failure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). While many of the COP 15 countries have successfully managed to reduce emissions since 1990, Canada's GHG emissions have increased 26.2% over the same period (Elston, 2009). Canada has never before seen its international reputation sink so low, with environmental groups and officials from many countries accusing Canada of obstructing an urgently needed world treaty on climate change (Lalonde, 2009).
Most feel that Copenhagen 15 was a failure.…...
mlaReferences
COP-15 Copenhagen Climate Conference. (2009). Retrieved January 23, 2010, from tcktcktck
Web site: http://tcktcktck.org/events/major-moments/cop-15-copenhagen-climate-conference
Decisions adopted by COP 15 and CMP 5. (2009). Retrieved January 23, 2010, from UNFCC
Hungary
Geography
Hungary is located in Central Europe, northwest of Romania (CIA 2012, EEA 2012). It measures 93,000 square kilometers. It is bordered by Romania, Croatia, Austria, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. Its capital is udapest (CIA, EEA).
Government
Hungary has a Republican form of government (FCO 2012). Its Constitution was adopted on April 18 last year and took effect in January this year. Its four branches of government are the executive, legislative, judicial and a Constitutional court. The President is the head of state. The Prime Minister is the head of government. A cabinet is also part of the executive branch. The legislative branch consists of a National Assembly of 386 members with a four-year term. The judicial branch is a Curia or a Supreme Court. The President since August 6, 2010 is Pal Schmitt and the Prime Minister since May 29, 2010 is Viktor Orban. Hungary has 19 counties in addition to…...
mlaBIBLIOGRAPHY
BEEA. Hungary. Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs: U.S. Department of State,
2012. Retrieved on March 24, 2012 from http://www.sate.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/36566.htm
CIA. Hungary. The World Fact Book: Central Intelligence Agency, 2012. Retrieved on March 24, 2012 from http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/hu.html
EOE. Hungary. The Encyclopedia of Earth: Central Intelligence Agency, 2012. Retrieved
Emissions trading programs as a means of achieving targets under the Kyoto Protocol
The global problem of climate change is becoming increasingly apparent as populations and economies grow worldwide. The build-up of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere is cited as a prominent cause of climate change. There is a correlation between elevated concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide (CO2), and global warming, which leads to extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and melting of polar ice caps.
There is an international recognition of the immediate need to reduce GHGs and remedy the problem of global warming. The Kyoto Protocol was established in December 1997 as an agreement between over 160 countries to set targets for the reduction of GHGs, and determined available options to achieve them. The Protocol includes three Kyoto Mechanisms, which are three market-based instruments that enable nations to but or earn credits on an…...
mlaReferences
Canada and the Kyoto Protocol - Overview. Climate Change - Government of Canada. http://climatechange.gc.ca/english/whats_new/overview_e.html.
Emissions Trading. National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy. Government of Canada. http://www.ntree-trnee.ca/EmissionsTrading.
This shows that media outlets have an extremely strong influence on individuals in their belief of global warming. The lack of knowledge in the real application of global warming is startling considering the real earnestness in which each of these individuals expressed their beliefs on global warming.
For the second group of individuals who do not believe in global warming, the results are just as mixed as previously. Although they all seem to very intelligent individuals, none of the three could provide a definition of exactly what global warming was. Although two of them pointed out that greenhouse gases plays a factor. They explained that their understanding or knowledge of global warming has come from multiple sources, and all professed a strong distrust of traditional media outlets as viable and truthful information. One of them interestingly cited the novel "State of Fear" as a strong impetus for why he does…...
mlaBibliography
Barnett, T.P., Adam, J.C., and Lettenmaier, D.P. (2005). "Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions." Nature 438: 303-309
Gerald a. Meehl, et.al., Science Magazine, www.sciencemag.orgHow Much More Global Warming and Sea Level Rise?, 18 March 2005. Retrieved February 11, 2007.
Abarbanel, Albert, and Thomas McCluskey (1950). "Is the World Getting Warmer?" Saturday Evening Post, 1 July, pp. 22-23, 57-63.
Agrawala, Shardul (1999). "Early Science-Policy Interactions in Global Climate Change: Lessons from the Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases." Global Environmental Change 9(2): 157-69.
It is indeed sad to point out that the Kyoto protocol has not been enforced as a result of its rejection by the U.S. government and the ussian move of deferring it.
Conclusion
As pointed out by Hamada (2006).the process of controlling the global weather change should be done through a combined and unified effort of all nations. These must include the entire global community of the developed and the developing nations. It is therefore important to put aside political differences and then advance a sense of unity in coming up with an appropriate framework to be used in tackling global warming. A global strategy should therefore be put forward to tackle the problem. The design of the global strategy must accommodate the situation of all the participating nations. On the technical aspect, the strategy must involve the view of both social and natural scientist.
eferences
Encyclopedia of Earth (2010)."Global Warming"
http://www.eoearth.org/articles/view/153038/?topic=49491
Guardia (2009). Climate change…...
mlaReferences
Encyclopedia of Earth (2010)."Global Warming"
http://www.eoearth.org/articles/view/153038/?topic=49491
Guardia (2009). Climate change increasing malaria risk, research reveals http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/dec/31/climate-change-malaria-kenya
Hamada, T (2006). How Should Global Society Address Climate Change? - The Kyoto Protocol
" (McDonald-Gibson, 2007) Therefore, although the entire planet suffers the consequences, it is a limited part of its inhabitants that perpetuates the crisis. From this perspective, developing nations demanded, on a regular basis even, the right to speak out their intentions and to have a unified position in terms of promoting sustainable development and implicitly the general environmental policies promoted by the UN.
Yet another element is in fact in relation to the previous two. Developed nations, although somewhat reluctant to their limitation of economic practices that would increase the limit of emissions, promised strategies and results for succeeding in reducing the greenhouse effects and all the additional side remarks. In this sense, throughout the debates on environmental policies, states such as Canada, France, and the United States would sponsor any initiative with the precise target. Therefore, there are some proposals for developing nations to reduce their need for fuel. These…...
mlaBibliography
European Union. The Kyoto protocol - a brief summary. European Union web site, accessed 19 June 2007, at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/kyoto.htm
Freestone, David, and Charlotte Strech. Legal aspects of implementing the Kyoto Protocol. Mechanisms. Making Kyoto work. Oxford: OUP.
Hohmann, Harald. Basic documents of international environmental law. International Environmental Law & Policy Series. Vol 1. London: Graham&Trotman, 1992.
Hollo, Erkki ed al. Legal aspects of climate change: Instrument choice and the Kyoto mechanisms. Retrieved 19 June 2007, at http://www.sci.utu.fi/projects/maantiede/figare/UGS/UGS-177.pdf
Criteria of buyer/investor on project type and location
A huge variety of CDM project locations, types and sizes exists and these are open to potential CDM investors. The national investment climate plus factors at the national level influence decisions on where, what type of projects to undertake as well as whether they ought to be developed as CDM projects. The investor's role in CDM project influences the physical spread of the CDM market. For instance, a technology provider who is offered payment partly via CE revenues may have a broad list of options of potential areas where to locate the project but a smaller choice of project type to engage in. Some funds set aside and intended for CDM funding have been decided upon as intended for specific project types and specific geographical areas. For example, the Spanish Carbon Fund directs its energies towards establishment of CDM projects in North Africa,…...
mlaReferences
Austin, D. And Faeth, P (2000). Financing Sustainable Development with the Clean
Development Mechanism. World Resource Institute, Washington, D.C.
Banuri, T., Gupta, S., (2000). The Clean Development Mechanism and Sustainable
Development: An Economic Analysis. Asian Development Bank, Manila.
But the supply far outstrips demand, Europeans are finding. The climate of this marketplace itself is decidedly cloudy. Advance prices have plunged by half.
At this point, one shouldn't portray it as a liquid, vibrant market," said Atle C. Christiansen of PointCarbon, a Norway-based research firm (Climate, 2004).
More than six years after governments negotiated the historic climate accord in Kyoto, Japan, the world is taking only halting steps _ not always forward, never in unison _ to follow through (Climate, 2004).
In fact, the Kyoto treaty itself is not yet in force, since it hasn't been ratified, as required, by industrial countries emitting a total of 55% of "greenhouse gases," such as carbon dioxide, that trap heat in the atmosphere that Earth otherwise would give off.
ussia's expected accession later this year would clear the 55% hurdle. But even a functioning Kyoto agreement would have little impact: Its limited reductions would barely slow…...
mlaReferences
Amazon rainforest destruction at 10-year high
By Raymond Colitt in Sao Paulo (accessed 5-19-05)
Published: May 20, 2005 03:00 | Last updated: May 20, 2005 03:00
rainforest (accessed 5-19-05)http://news.ft.com/cms/s/4ea07b74-c8cd-11d9-87c9-00000e2511c8.html
An American who spent sometime in Germany recounted his experience [Will Higher Gasoline Prices Inspire Lifestyle Changes, 2001] of energy prices in that country, "When I lived in Germany, the price of gasoline went from the equivalent of $2.50 per gallon to $3.25 per gallon over night. The Bundesregierung had added another $0.75/gallon gas tax, in addition to the existing $2.00 per gallon gas tax. (That's right: $2.75 out of every $3.25 per gallon was Federal taxes.)," He remembered the effect on prices on his use of transport, "I used the public transport system, easily the best in the world."
This is the direction our country will have to go too. Do we allow this country to be totally dependent on imported oil? Should we keep gasoline prices low to prevent development of alternatives or take necessary steps now to create a change in the present Gas Guzzling life style? The…...
mlaRoberts, P., Bad Sports, Harper's Magazine. April 2001
Snead, M.C. And Martinez, R.D., Energy Prices and the Oklahoma Economy, Center for Applied Economic Research, Oklahoma State University, September 2004
Yetiv, S.A., America benefits from high oil prices, retrieved from Internet on 21st May 2006, February 6, 2006http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060206/news_mz1e6yetiv.html ,
The concepts of "green houses," and "green jobs" are more and more utilized in everyday's conversation and the media has already made people aware of some of the benefits of using alternative sources of energy such as solar energy. The short and medium term benefits lie not only in the relatively short period of depreciation of such an investment, but also in an increase in the quality of life of those depending no longer on a source that is pollutant as well as not renewable. I will also appeal to the advantages provided by this alternate source of energy in terms of international politics and economies. Using the immense potential of alternative energy resources our country provides us, we could become less dependent on foreign oil, thus less influenced by the foreign politics and fluctuations in the oil prices on the international market.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Climate Change.…...
mlaVictor. D.G. The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to Slow Global Warming. Princeton University Press, 2001. viii
Victor. D.G. The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to Slow Global Warming. Princeton University Press, 2001. viii
Idem. 29
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