SAT/ACT Assessment Gaps and Accountability for African Americans

Introduction

The curriculum is the basis of the teaching and learning process. The development of study programs, learning and teaching resources, lesson plans, and student and teacher education assessments are all part of the curriculum. Curriculum is a primary concern to educators, governments, and parents alike, as it directly impacts society and community development. With recent educational developments, there have been significant implications for the skills and understandings embedded in the curricula and assessments that teachers develop in both onboarding and practice. Assessment systems measure student performance, and accompanying accountability policies assert that high standards apply to all students, with standards-based reforms focusing on all children regardless of ethnicity.

Among Americans, equity is a social value that is widely upheld. The public expects public schools to provide all students an equal opportunity (Wiliam, 2010). Concern has been expressed by many parents, community members, and social groups regarding academic learning achievements. These levels are measured using standardized tests such as state-mandated tests used to direct the No Child Left Behind program (Wiliam, 2010), the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), and the American College Testing program (ACT). College officials use SAT or ACT scores to determine admission rates to colleges and universities when viable alternatives are unavailable. The use of SAT and ACT scores has many implications; college and university officials rely on these standardized methods to admit students even though alternative approaches exist.

There is an increasing number of minority groups being admitted to higher education. Universities are attracting many nontraditional students — including older students, international students, and home-schooled students. Many communities have been undergoing primary and secondary reforms by adopting national, state, and district curriculum standards. In many states, standardized benchmarks are used to determine whether students have met those standards, including performance enhancement tests. These reforms change how students receive education and process information (Burton & Ramist, 2001). Assessment tests enable colleges and universities to determine whether traditional measures fairly evaluate students from different backgrounds and with varied credentials. Regulations and legal actions regularly measure changes in acceptance to higher education institutions. Some states have prohibited the use of race, ethnicity, and gender as admissions factors (Burton & Ramist, 2001). When minority students are admitted solely on the basis of prior academic scores and admission test results — without consideration of race or ethnicity — their enrollment numbers tend to decline.

Trends in College Admissions and Standardized Testing

All colleges and universities, except approximately 400 institutions, require either the SAT or the ACT. Many colleges do not specify a minimum SAT or ACT score, but officials have effectively established minimum expectations by publishing ranges of SAT scores in freshman class profiles. There is considerable pressure to include SAT or ACT scores in college brochures (Johnson, 2002). Most students are discouraged from applying to schools where their SAT or ACT scores fall below the published ranges. Many officials, however, do not publish information about the socioeconomic range, high school GPA, or geographical diversity of their incoming classes.

Ensuring that all students benefit from publicly funded education is a government priority in many countries. The basic governmental hierarchy holds institutions accountable for the use of public funds, and schools are in turn held responsible for delivering high-quality education — including students' knowledge, skills, and behaviors. Attending a college or university of one's choice is a goal for many young people, but the college entrance examination process raises the stakes considerably (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Because of the high-stakes nature of these tests, many students and parents pay significant sums to prepare through private coaching. Many schools are also incorporating test preparation classes into their curriculum.

Many countries have implemented policies for student assessment and accountability. Specialized test preparation raises questions about its effectiveness in raising scores and about the ethics involved, as many students are excluded due to cost. The SAT and ACT are standardized tests designed to assess students' readiness for college, measuring mathematics, reading, and writing with a combined score between 400 and 1600 (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). They are high-stakes assessments taken as part of the college application process, with most universities using them in admissions decisions. High scores also improve the likelihood of receiving financial aid. Test preparation programs teach students to familiarize themselves with the tests and introduce test-taking strategies — for example, advising students not to guess if an answer is unknown (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). These programs are delivered online, in group classes, or through individual instruction.

Administrators receive feedback at the school, district, and state levels showing how close they are to meeting ACT readiness benchmarks. Administrators who wish to evaluate school performance in specific subjects examine those subjects directly and calculate mean grades at each grade level. To assess growth, administrators calculate the mean projected growth (MPG) for each school and compare it across subjects. High gain scores indicate more growth than low gain scores (ACT, Inc., 2015). Data obtained from these assessments reveal achievement gaps when average scores differ across student subgroups — including racial or ethnic minority subgroups, students from low-income families, students with disabilities, and students whose first language is not English. Minority groups of particular focus include African American, Hispanic, and Asian American students. Critics note, however, that a single assessment is not necessarily sufficient to determine a student's college readiness.

Types of Bias in Standardized Testing

Bias in standardized testing is typically analyzed through three categories: labeling bias, content bias, and methodological bias. Labeling bias occurs when a test claims to measure one construct but actually measures another. It arises most often in tests that purport to measure intelligence or aptitude, since intelligence and aptitude are complex traits influenced by both genetic makeup and environmental factors. Content bias occurs when a test claims to assess a particular body of knowledge in an equitable way but fails to do so because the questions favor one group over another. For example, vocabulary tests administered to both English-speaking Canadians and English-speaking Italians may systematically underestimate Italian-speaking students' abilities. Methodological bias occurs when tests assess a skill or body of knowledge using a method that underestimates one group's capabilities relative to another — for instance, when multiple-choice questions are used instead of essays, or when assessments are conducted under high-pressure conditions.

Prediction bias occurs when a test is used to forecast future performance. Colleges use the SAT to predict applicants' academic performance. When an African American student achieves higher college grades than a White student with the same SAT score, some observers incorrectly conclude that the African American student's result distorted the SAT's predictive validity. This interpretation itself reflects a form of bias embedded in how test results are interpreted and applied.

The Black-White SAT/ACT Scoring Gap

The academic performance of African American students remains a significant concern for researchers and the broader community. This concern is evident in standardized test scores, where African American students score on average below their Caucasian and Asian American counterparts (Marrah, 2012). This gap contributes to lower academic achievement and lower educational attainment overall. Statistics on standardized test scores suggest that policies designed to be implemented nationwide risk excluding many Black students from admission to the nation's highest-ranked institutions, since only a small number of Black students score at the top of the SAT or ACT scale (Cross, 2005). The College Board has long used a 200–800 scoring scale for the mathematical and verbal sections. With the introduction of a writing component under a newer assessment model, and following the discontinuation of the old test format (Cross, 2005), Black scores increased by approximately seven points — but White scores also increased, leaving the scoring gap largely intact.

An analysis of the College Board's racial score data published in 1976 showed that the average gap between Black and White students on the Scholastic Aptitude Test was approximately 240 points — about 20% lower than the White average score (Cross, 2005). By the 1980s, the racial gap had narrowed to approximately 200 points, representing roughly 17% (Cross, 2005). As the gap continued to shrink, many specialists predicted it would eventually disappear. However, this narrowing stalled in 1989 and the gap began to widen again between 2000 and 2005 as SAT participation expanded. By 2005, the average Black score had increased by approximately 17% compared to prior years, but small improvements in Black scores were offset by corresponding increases in White scores, leaving the overall gap wider than before (Cross, 2005). African American scores on the SAT remain below those of White students and other minority groups, including Asian Americans.

There are several factors that explain the persistent scoring gap between African American and White students. One important factor is the relationship between family income and SAT performance within the African American community. Family background and financial support influence scores considerably. White families with below-average incomes had a mean SAT score of 993 — higher than the mean for all Black students combined. These lower-income White students scored approximately 61 points higher on the SAT than middle-class Black families (Cross, 2005). Higher-income African American families had a mean SAT score approximately 85 points below the mean for all income-level families combined.

Sociocultural factors also contribute to the gap, including cultural attitudes, racism, and differential social privileges that shape students' social and cultural practices (Anderson, 2010). Many schools that African American students attend are underfunded, understaffed, and lack the equipment necessary to provide the same quality of education available elsewhere. In some cases, African American children face low expectations from teachers who hold negative assumptions about Black students' abilities before even getting to know them individually. Such attitudes deprive students of the motivation and intellectual challenge needed to develop the skills required for strong test performance (Cross, 2005).

Broader societal factors within Black communities — such as attitudes toward academic commitment, work ethic, and parenting styles — also influence the educational gap. Some African American students in higher-income households do not prioritize academic achievement, and parental involvement in academic progress is sometimes insufficient (Anderson, 2010). Additionally, African American students may not have followed the same academic track as White students. While many students take algebra in high school, White test-takers are more likely to have completed advanced mathematics courses such as calculus and trigonometry. Most White test-takers have also completed more coursework in the English components tested by the SAT than their Black counterparts (Cross, 2005). White students are also more likely to have taken honors courses in science and social studies.

Student characteristics — including grade point averages, coursework, and the number of courses completed — are among the most significant determinants of SAT and ACT scores. Coursework, grades, high school characteristics, and educational plans all affect ACT performance (Anderson, 2010). Peer ridicule makes it difficult for many African American students to study effectively. Social pressure compounds the problem, as some communities expect Black students to succeed academically in order to counter negative stereotypes — creating anxiety that itself becomes a barrier to performance. Guidance counselors and school administrators sometimes assume that African American students are less capable, steering them toward vocational training programs or curricula that do not prepare them for college (Cross, 2005). When an African American student falls behind academically, it becomes increasingly difficult to compete with White counterparts in the critical subjects covered by standardized tests. Some students are taught culturally focused curricula designed to increase awareness of Black history and culture, but these curricula do not always address the specific subject-matter content tested by the SAT.

Conclusion

The SAT and ACT are standardized tests used to assess students' readiness for college. The tests measure mathematics, reading, and writing with combined scores ranging from 400 to 1600. They are required for freshman entry at many colleges and universities and play a central role in admissions decisions. Black students consistently score lower on the SAT than their White and Asian American counterparts. The persistence of these racial differences is rooted in social and economic disparities; family characteristics have a larger impact on African American children's academic performance than almost any other variable. Parent-student interactions have a profound effect on vocabulary development and critical thinking. Although SAT scores have been used as predictors of college success, they have proven less reliable in predicting African American students' college performance than White students' performance — raising important questions about the fairness and utility of these tests as the primary gatekeeping mechanism for higher education access.