This is a particular problem at the nation's colleges and universities. This has become so much of an issue that law suits and verdicts have been handed down in some states.
One of the most famous cases to date involved the University of Michigan's undergraduate and law school policies. These cases are Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger. In 1997, Jennifer Gratz, a white woman, sued the University of Michigan undergraduate college because she was not admitted even though several black students with lower test scores and grades were granted admission. During the same year, Barbara Grutter, also a white woman, filed suit against the Law School for the same reasons.
In 2003 the cases were heard together at the Supreme Court. The court ruled that policies that take race into consideration are allowable under the constitution. The court explains that states have an interest in guaranteeing that there is…...
mlaWorks Cited
"Affirmative Action." http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/
Brown-Nagin T. (2005) Elites, Social Movements, and the Law: The Case of Affirmative Action Columbia Law Review, Vol. 105, No. 5 pp. 1436-1528
Crosby F.J., Iyer, a., Sincharoen S. (2006). Understanding Affirmative Action
Annual Review of Psychology. 57: 585-611
Affirmative Action is an organization of policies and designed procedures aimed at assisting in the elimination of discrimination against women and other minorities in the human society, together with redressing the possibilities of past discrimination. As required by the Affirmative Action Plan's requirements, Affirmative Action was signed by President Johnson in 1965. It supported and revised by different presidents in the world. The intention of Affirmative Action is to have less or no discriminations in the various fields of living among the minority groups and women in the society of the U.S. And other nations that subdue to it. Nonetheless, Affirmative Action has attracted both positive and negative effects on the human society.
The initial intention of Affirmative Action was to bring sanity in the human society where equality and cohesive continuation exists in the society. According to President John F. Kennedy, Affirmative Action is as good as a society that…...
mlaReferences
Moultry, M. (1999). The positive and negative effects of Affirmative Action in higher education.
Rabe, J. (2001). Equality, Affirmative Action and justice. Hamburg: Rabe.
Spielberger, C.D. (2004). Encyclopedia of applied psychology. Oxford: Academic.
Affirmative action is an initiative based on a set of policies that are intended to eradicate both present and past prejudice against women and minority in areas of employment and businesses where they were historically marginalized. Theses discriminations can also be based on ones race, religion, color or nation of origin (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2009).
rief History of affirmative action
Civil rights movements originally endorsed programs that would enable African-Americans acquire full citizenship of the United States; slavery was then illegalized and equal protection under the law was guaranteed and prejudice against voting rights was as well forbidden. The end of post civil war reconstruction era was marked in 1896 by the ruling of the Supreme Court over the Plessy v. Ferguson's decision to uphold anything that displayed equality for African-Americans. President Franklin D. Roosevelt then signed an executive order 8802 in 1941 in order to forbid certain policies that embraced…...
mlaBrunner Borgna, (2012). Affirmative action history. Retrieved May 9, 2012 from http://www.infoplease.com/spot/affirmative1.html
Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy (2009). Affirmative Action. Retrieved May 9, 2012 from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/
Sykes Marquita, (2012). The origins of affirmative action. Retrieved May 9, 2012 http://www.now.org/nnt/08-95/affirmhs.html
Affirmative Action is an extremely important concept since it is vital to the operation of America as a democracy. It reinforces the affirmation of the Constitution that all people are born equal and should, therefore, be given an equal chance to prove themselves. Employment opportunity (and other factors) should be based on merit rather than on extraneous factors such as skin color, race, gender, physiology, and so forth.
The Federal egister states that "race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or national origin" (http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html) should not be considered when evaluating the candidate's chance for "areas of employment, education, and business" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/.).
The principles of affirmative action exist in almost all countries. Their policies vary but their fundamentals are, more or less, the same.
A. How Affirmative Action came to be
The term first came into effect with JF Kennedy in 1961 when he signed the Executive Order 10925. The order in effect stated that:
"[employers are]…...
mlaReference
Federal Register
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/
Infoplease Milestone Cases in Supreme Court History -- Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0101289.html#ixzz2DoTJfffl
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, "Executive Order 10925 -- Establishing The President's Committee On Equal Employment Opportunity." http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-10925.htm
Affirmative Action Lit eview
Affirmative Action eview of Literature
Has Affirmative Action outlived its use in today's society? And if so should the program change or simply come to an end?
The issue of Affirmative Action (AA) is one that is currently being hotly debated by both policy makers and the public. Like racism itself there are many opinions all of which are run the gamut between logical and illogical and constructive and destructive. In general it is come to be an accepted premise that AA has outlived its usefulness, has a tendency to do damage to both the minority beneficiaries of it and the majority and should either be changed drastically in application or eliminate it altogether (Todd, Spanierman, & Poteat, 2011). In looking at this issue through the perspective of academic literature this researcher developed two general questions regarding AA; Has Affirmative Action outlived its use in today's society? And if…...
mlaRiccucci, N.M. (2007). Moving away from a strict scrutiny standard for Affirmative Action: Implications for public management. The American Review Of Public Administration, 37(2), 123-141. doi:10.1177/0275074006298877
Riccucci, N.M. (2009). The pursuit of social equity in the federal government: A road less traveled?. Public Administration Review, 69(3), 373-382. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.01984.x
Todd, N.R., Spanierman, L.B., & Poteat, V. (2011). Longitudinal Examination of the Psychosocial Costs of Racism to Whites across the College Experience. Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 508-521.
Actually, state agencies and institutions of higher learning have continued to rely upon the Supreme Court decisions and federal legislation to enforce the policies of affirmative action since 1978. While there are no definitive answers on whether affirmative action policies and programs are necessary, scholars and civic leaders have been engaged in hot debates to determine the implications of measures to dismantle affirmative action policies and programs.
There are various reasons that prove that affirmative action policies and programs are not necessary in the 21st Century and should therefore be abolished. These reasons include & #8230;
Inability to Eliminate Discrimination:
Generally, affirmative action has been unable to wholly eliminate discrimination that is entrenched in the American government and society. While affirmative action was developed to help cure all discrimination in the United States, it is quite evident that this policy has been unable to accomplish its objective. If the affirmative action policies…...
mlaReferences:
Conn, S.L. & Niskey, L.T. (1998, April 23). The Legitimacy of Anti-Affirmative Action
Initiatives: Didactical Lessons for 21st Century Administrators. Third Annual National Conference, 25.
Jackson. (n.d.). Why is Affirmative Action Such a Divisive Issue? Retrieved from New York
University website: http://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/social.issues/papers/AfActGrF.html
Many federal courts have held that community law enforcement agencies may adhere to the stipulations of the Equal Protection Clause if an organizational need validates the employer's intentional affirmative action labors. In the arena of higher education, the Supreme Court has held in Grutter v. Bollinger that having an assorted student body can often account for the consideration of race as an issue in precise admissions results at colleges and universities without infringing the Equal Protection Clause or Title VI of the Civil ights Act of 1964. The Supreme Court as of yet has not decided on whether an organizational need or diversity foundation can give reason for voluntary affirmative action efforts under Title VII (Section 15: ace & Color Discrimination, 2006).
Companies usually do not have quotas since there is really is no such thing in consideration of Affirmative Action. As an alternative, there are numeric goals which are…...
mlaReferences
Affirmative Action. (2010). Retrieved August 23, 2010, from enotes Web site:
http://www.enotes.com/everyday-law-encyclopedia/affirmative-action
Frequently Asked Questions About Affirmative Action. (2007). Retrieved August 23, 2010, from The HR Consultant Web site: http://www.thehrconsultant.net/FAQ.html
Section 15: Race & Color Discrimination. (2006). Retrieved August 23, 2010, from EEOC Web
367)
Accoding to Sande, none of these questions have been asked effectively and theefoe we as a nation continue to believe that affimative action is a necessay social development fo the ceation of a moe epesentative society, whee disenfanchisement must be answeed by active plans, policies and laws.
Few of us would enthusiastically suppot pefeential admission policies if we did not believe they played a poweful, ieplaceable ole in giving nonwhites in Ameica access to highe education, entee to the national elite, and a chance of coecting histoic undeepesentations in the leading pofessions. (Sande, 2004, p. 367)
Sande then goes on, supisingly to develop the fact that acial pefeence, at least in elite law school statistical analysis has not been an effective tool in the development of a moe epesentative and divese population among lawyes and in fact he contends that if it wee abolished minoity aces might actually fae bette.
When one…...
mlareferences and Affirmative Action in Making Admissions Decisions at a Predominantly White University. College Student Journal, 39(4), 734.
Chander, a. (2003). Minorities, Shareholder and Otherwise. Yale Law Journal, 113(1), 119.
Dietz-Uhler, B., & Murrell, a.J. (1998). Evaluations of Affirmative Action Applicants: Perceived Fairness, Human Capital, or Social Identity?. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 38(11-12), 933.
Robinson, R.K., Franklin, G.M., & Epermanis, K. (2007). The Supreme Court Rulings in Grutter V. Bollinger and Gratz V. Bollinger: The Brave New World of Affirmative Action in the 21st Century. Public Personnel Management, 36(1), 33.
Sander, R.H. (2004). A Systemic Analysis of Affirmative Action in American Law Schools. Stanford Law Review, 57(2), 367.
..aims to compensate people for past discrimination and its effects. A main effect of past discrimination is current competitive disadvantage; affirmative action gives victims a competitive advantage to compensate for this injury." (1998) the Discrimination-blocking affirmative action according to Anderson: "...aims to block current discriminatory mechanisms by imposing a countervailing force in the opposite direction. It doesn't remove the factors -- prejudice, stereotypes, stigma, intergroup anxiety -- that cause discrimination; it just tries to block their discriminatory effects." (1998) Finally, Anderson states that the view of Integrative affirmative action has the aims of dismantling the "...current causes of race-based disadvantage -- segregation, stigmatization, discrimination -- by promoting racial integration. It thus aims for a future in which these causes no longer operate." (1998)
Anderson additionally states that arguments relating to 'diversity' supporting affirmative action "are a species of argument from social utility. The general idea is that group attributes can contribute…...
mlaBibliography
Froomkin, Dan (1998) Affirmative Action Under Attack. Washington Post. Affirmative Action Special. Online available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/affirm/affirm.htm
Conflicted View of Affirmative Action (2003) the Pew Research Center 14 May 2003. Online available at http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/184.pdf
Anderson, Elizabeth S. (1998) Race, Gender, and Affirmative Action. University of Michigan, Department of Philosophy. Online available at
Furthermore, it is also believed that the evolution of American society is at a point where all forms of discrimination can be done away with. Dworkin therefore appears to advocate a simple acceptance of all affirmative action programs in terms of their original intention; to redress the collectivist wrongs perpetrated against a collective sector of society, by another collective. In this, those belonging to the historically repressive collective should, in the spirit of future equality and social collectivism, accept these attempts in this light.
One argument that Dworkin mentions is that those, like Hopwood and Bakke, who are disadvantaged tend not to feel overly positive regarding the collectivist future advantage of the country as a result of what they see as reverse discrimination. This creates bitterness and resentment, as mentioned in Yates. uch bitterness and resentment are hardly conducive to future unity in the country. In response to this argument,…...
mlaSources
Bernstein, Richard. "Racial Discrimination or Righting Past Wrongs?" New York Times. July 13, 1994. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E1D6123FF930A25754C0A962958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all
Dworkin, Ronald. "Bakke's Case: Are Quotas Unfair?" In Race and Racism by Bernard R. Boxill, 2001.
Dworkin, Ronald et al. The Bakke Case: An Exchange. The New York Review of Books, Vol. 24, No. 21 & 22. Jan 26, 1978. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8301
Morley, Jefferson. "Double Reverse Discrimination" in Justice: A Reader by Michael J. Sandel, 2007.
Affirmative Action is the set of public policies and initiatives designed to help eliminate past and present discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Affirmative action was set into place during the 1960's. Focusing in particular on education and jobs, affirmative action policies required that active measures be taken to ensure that blacks and other minorities enjoyed the same opportunities for promotions, salary increases, career advancement, school admissions, scholarships, and financial aid that had been the nearly exclusive province of whites. However, despite its good intentions, affirmative action has actually created more problems than it has solved, explaining why so many are now calling for an end to its policies. Affirmative action violates our United States Constitution, favors the middle and upper class, allows unqualified entry to universities and jobs, promotes racism and fosters further discrimination.
Affirmative action really is all about quotas rather than eliminating race as…...
mlaBibliography
Affirmative Action: The Watershed." Courreges. 21 Apr. 2003. http://courreges.freeservers.com/affirmativeaction.htm.
Arguments Against Affirmative Action." San Juan Unified School District." 21 Apr. 2003. http://www.sanjuan.edu/select/etma/dennis/arguments.html .
Brunner, Borgna. "Bakke and Beyond." Infoplease 21 Apr. 2003. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/affirmative1.html .
Bush Weighs In On Affirmative Action." 17 Jan. 2003. Erik's Pad and Pen. 21 Apr. firmative_action.php>.http://www.ehummel.net/ramblings/archives/2003/01/17/bush_weighs_in_on_af
If affirmative action is permissible by law and sustainable by the Constitution, then it makes sense that universities would be allowed to continue their legacy admissions. The morality and ethics of legacy admissions is a different thing altogether.
Affirmative action remains necessary in a nation that only abolished Jim Crow laws five decades ago and which still suffers from one of the largest income disparities of any developed country. On the other hand, legacy admissions further entrench the financially and culturally elite in positions of power. In Liberalism Divided, Owen M. Fiss (1997) analyzes what he calls the "group disadvantaging principle," (p. 36). Fiss (1997) posits the group disadvantaging principle as the principle underlying affirmative action. The principle acknowledges the link between race and class. The group disadvantaging principle "seeks to end social subordination" by proactively uprooting all forms of social inequality and discrimination (Fiss 1997, p. 36). It is…...
mlaReferences
American Council on Education (2002). What Leaders are Saying about Affirmative Action and Diversity. Retrieved June 18, 2008 at http://www.acenet.edu/bookstore/descriptions/making_the_case/works/leaders.cfm
Bradley, R. (2006). Children of Alumni Check Here. Review of: The Price of Admission: How America's Ruling Class Buys Its Way Into Elite Colleges -- and Who Gets Left Outside the Gates. The New York Sun. Sept 21, 2006. Retrieved June 19, 2008 at http://www.nysun.com/arts/children-of-alumni-check-here/40127/
Fiss, O. (1997). Liberalism Divided: Freedom of Speech and the Many Uses of State Power. Retrieved June 19, 2008 at http://books.google.com/books?id=VJLP13ylC2YC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=group+disadvantaging+principle&source=web&ots=zriUKOVo6L&sig=77UeAOTb2E4K2lp6X3bunFs30TQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPA36,M1
Katie (2005). Legacy Admissions. A Constrained Vision (blog). Retrieved June 19, 2008 at http://aconstrainedvision.blogspot.com/2005/03/legacy-admissions.html
Criticism of Affirmative Action
Over the years, specific criticisms of Affirmative Action have developed as a result of the endless debate and legal wrangling over the issue, as well as the division in American society about the topic. The first criticism of Affirmative Action to consider is the assertion that the burden of compensating victims of discrimination usually becomes the responsibility of those who are not individually responsible for the discrimination itself. For example, in the case of employment, promotion and educational opportunities, white males are usually the ones who pay the consequences of discrimination violations even if they did not cause it. While the argument is made that this is just because the white males receive the most benefit from discrimination against others, the same argument can be made that the price that white males pay for these extra opportunities exceed what they ever receive in return, making them the…...
This agency reviews affirmative action programs and addresses complaints, violations or issues with non-compliance (Skrentny, 2001).
The nondiscrimination section of the executive order applies to all contractors and subcontractors with federal contracts over $10,000 in any one year. The Executive Order also requires that any non-construction contractor with federal contracts over $50,000 and over fifty employees must establish a written affirmative action plan within 120 days of initiation of the contract (Carrington, McCue, Brooks, 2000).
Federal regulations specify that this written plan must include a detailed analysis of the employer's workforce by race, ethnicity, and sex as well as an analysis of any underrepresentation of particular groups (Skrentny, 2001). If an underutilization is found, the employer is charged with determining if the representation of particular groups is lower in their workplace than in the geographic area and if so they will need to develop an affirmative action plan with targeted goals…...
mlaReferences
Carrington, W.J., & McCue, K., Brooks, P. (2000). Using establishment size to measure the impact of Title VII and affirmative action. The Journal of Human Resources, 35(3), 503-523.
Kelly, E., & Dobin, F. (1998). How affirmative action became diversity management. American Behavioral Scientist, 41(7), 960-984.
Lee, R.A. (1999). The evolution of affirmative action. Public Personnel Management, 28(3),
393-409.
Affirmative Action Case
Fisher v. Texas
Summarize the case's key arguments
Fisher v. Texas is about two white students who were denied admission to the University of Texas in 2008. They felt discriminated against based upon the fact that the school overly relied on race to determine who will be admitted. Both students sued the university. They allege that race is giving unqualified candidates an advantage over applicants (based upon ethnicity). As they felt that there were more neutral indicators. That could be utilized to determining the best applicants. ("Fisher v. Texas," 2013) (Wermeil, 2011)
At the heart of their argument, was the fact that this policy violated the Equal Protection Clause under the 14th Amendment. It also went in direct conflict with Texas House Bill 588. It states, that the University of Texas will accept anyone who is in the top 10% of their high school graduating class. This is regardless of the…...
mlaReferences
Fisher v. Texas. (2013). NCSL. Retrieved from:
http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/affirmative-action-court-decisions.aspx
Wermeil, S. (2011). SCOTUS for Law Students. SCOTUS Blog. Retrieved from:
http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/10/barbara-grutter-meet-abigail-fisher/
1. Should social media platforms be held responsible for monitoring and removing hate speech?
2. Is the death penalty an effective deterrent for violent crime?
3. Should college athletes be paid for their performance?
4. Are stricter gun control laws necessary to reduce gun violence?
5. Should the government provide free healthcare for all citizens?
6. Is climate change a result of human activity?
7. Should the minimum wage be increased to a livable wage?
8. Is affirmative action still necessary in today's society?
9. Should standardized testing be the primary measure of student achievement?
10. Is privacy in the digital age a fundamental human right?
11. Should the use....
Certainly! Here are some potential essay topics related to social problems and programs addressing those issues:
1. The impact of homelessness on individuals and communities, and the effectiveness of government-funded programs such as Housing First in addressing this issue.
2. The challenges faced by individuals struggling with addiction, and the benefits of programs like Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous in providing support and recovery resources.
3. The prevalence of food insecurity in low-income communities, and the role of government assistance programs like SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) in ensuring access to adequate nutrition.
4. The mental health stigma in society, and the importance of....
1. The impact of homelessness on society and possible solutions: explore programs such as housing first initiatives and supportive services provided by government and non-profit organizations to address the issue of homelessness, and provide recommendations for improving access to affordable housing and support services.
2. The stigma surrounding mental health and the need for increased access to mental health services: discuss the various government and private mental health programs available, such as counseling services and hotlines, and offer recommendations for reducing the stigma associated with mental illness and improving access to mental health care.
3. The effects of poverty on children's education....
Developing Argumentative Essay Topics
An argumentative essay presents a claim and supports it with evidence and reasoning. Crafting effective essay topics is crucial for a successful argumentative essay. Consider the following guidance to develop engaging and thought-provoking topics:
1. Choose a Controversial Issue:
Select a topic that has multiple perspectives and generates debate.
Avoid topics with a clear consensus or limited opposing viewpoints.
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This will allow you to delve into the topic's complexities and provide insightful analysis.
3.....
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