On Feb. 2, 2007, the United Nations scientific panel studying climate change declared that the evidence of a warming trend is "unequivocal," and that human activity has "very likely" been the driving force in that change over the last 50 years. The last report by the group, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, in 2001, had found that humanity had "likely" played a role." (Science, 5 December 2008).

Ozone and Earth's Homeostasis

The homeostasis on the earth is maintained by the presence of ozone, ozone makes a layer in the stratosphere which is roughly about 10-15 kilometers from the earth's surface. Ozone is formed when O2 and Oxygen atom O. collide with each other. When this reaction takes place the molecule O3 contains excessive energy, after the formation of the molecule becomes unstable, the excessive energy is discarded by colliding with another atom and the energy is transferred in the form of…...

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References

Global Warming: Early Warning Signs. In Climate Hot Map. Retrieved on 1 December 2008 at  http://www.climatehotmap.org/ 

Introduction to Ozone. In Introduction to Climate. Retrieved on 5 December 2008 at  http://www.ucar.edu/learn/1_5_1.htm 

Ozone Depletion. In Think Quest. Retrieved on 5 December 2008 at http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/ozone_depletion.html

Ozone. In Study World. Retrieved on 5 December 2008 at  http://www.studyworld.com/newsite/ReportEssay/Science/Earth%5COzone.htm

His government wanted HCFCs to replace CFCs. HCFCs are far less damaging to the ozone layer. They are used in refrigeration. He proposed that the deadlines for the cessation of the use of CFCs be advanced by a decade. The global agreement was to phase out CFCs among industrialized countries by 2030 and among developing countries by 2040. It was also later discovered that HCFCs warm up the earth a lot faster than carbon dioxide (Lean). HCFCs were first assumed to be beneficial alternatives to CFCs (aker 2000). These chemicals were found to be potent greenhouse gases, which heat up the earth up to 4,000 times more than carbon dioxide (Lean).
The Montreal Protocol was successful in immediately phasing out ozone-depleting chemicals, such as CFCs, by replacing them with less damaging alternatives (Sengupta 2005). Manufacturers of fire extinguishers and refrigerators could be commended for their response. ut the real effects…...

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Bibliography

Amodeo, Christian. Arctic Ozone Layer Thinning. Geographical: Circa Publishing Ltd., 2005. Retrieved on March 11, 2009 at  http://findarticles.com/ articles/p/mi_hb3120/is_4_77/ai_n291716694?tag=content;col1

Baker, Linda. The Hole in the Sky - Ozone Layer. The Environmental Magazine: Earth

Action Network, Inc., 2000. Retrieved on March 11, 2009 at

Ozone and Global Warming
Globalism was one of the predominant changes made in the late 20th century. It combines economics, politics, and cultural movements that through the increased use of technology move the world closer together. If, in the modern world, actions are tied together, globalism should work because it delineates cause and effect in every area of the world. For instance, globalism has increased manufacturing and trade. Because of this, more pollutants are being placed into the atmosphere causing a number of controversial theories.

Global warming is the idea that there has been a gradual increase in earth's median temperature for surface air and oceans, based on the increase in greenhouse cases produced globally. Temperature variations have a dramatic effect on the globe due to the synergy between weather patterns, temperature, agriculture, and economics. Extreme weather patterns (e.g. dramatic changes in rainfall, freezing temperatures, storm systems, heat waves, etc.), cause possible…...

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Sources:

Text

Brahic, C. (2007). "Climate Myths." New Scientist. Cited in:

 http://www.newscientist.com/articleimages/dn11639/0-climate-myths-the-cooling-after-1940-shows-co2-does-not-cause-warming.html 

Houghton, J. (2009). Global Warming: The Complete Briefing. New York: Cambridge

Due to the Montreal Protocol signed in 1987 in which 160 of the world's nations joined together in banning CFCs and in an initiative to try to off-set any further effects due to emissions of gases that deplete the Ozone there are many recent reports that the hole in the Ozone layer is becoming smaller.
The "impressive global response to ozone layer destruction," were sung praises of the Secretary-General but also cautioned that it is not a time for complacency. There were minimum effects of decreasing to the ozone levels in the Antarctic during the decade of the 1990's. During 2000 and 2003 the hole extended over 10.8 million square miles or an area larger than the North American Continent.

All damages to the Ozone layer are not of the manmade type. It is known that volcanoes emit sulfuric acid droplets during the course of an eruption. Although it is expected…...

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Bibliography:

Ricks, Delthia (2004) "U.S. Urban Air Polution: Ground-level Ozone Tied to Deaths"-

Newsday Report [Online] Retrieved from HighBeam Research ttp://www.highbeam.com library/doc3.asp?DO CID=1P1:102525028& num=4& ctrlInfo=Round9b%3APro d%3ASR %3AResult& ao=

Fundamental of Physical Geography (nd) Chapter 7: Introduction to the Atmosphere: Atmospheric Composition [Online] located at; et/fu ndamenta ls/7a.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.n

Mukhopadyay, R. (2004) Rubber World: Ozone Attack and Tire Sidewall Protection (Tech Service); 9/1/2004; Mukhopadhyay, R.

2009). Though innovative, this use of the model appears to be highly reliable and appropriate given the context of the study. At the same time, very little direct observation is utilized for correlation to this data, and retroactive predictions are not presented to demonstrate the model's efficacy, raising some doubt.
Discussion

Though the system of ozone depletion and recovery was thought to be fairly well understood given the decades of research on the subject, emerging data regarding significant influential issues that had previously gone unaccounted for have suggested that this understanding is not as complete or as accurate as was previously thought. Climate change is suggested in many of the studies to have a significant impact on the rates of stratospheric ozone depletion and recovery, which in turn is seen as having an effect on climate change in other studies. This potentially cyclical interaction gives rise to complexities that are only…...

A found this article particularly shocking for the immense figures suggested by the number of babies born daily. Such statistics opened my eyes to the core of the problem. Not only are we destroying the planet through our overindulgent, selfish and unsustainable habits, but also by the sheer number of us doing the same thing. No wonder studies such as the one in the first article found very little positive change in the environment around us. It is, as Connor says, time to raise our heads from the sand and face the core of our environmental problems. From the basis of sustainable population numbers, we can then create sustainable energy sources.

eferences

Business Wire. "Stratospheric Ozone Study Indicates: More is Needed for Full ecovery eport eleased on the UN International Day to Protect the Ozone Layer." Sept. 15, 2003. Database: FindArticles.com. UL:

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2003_Sept_15/ai_107753958

Connor, Steve. "Overpopulation is 'main threat to planet'." The Independent (London).…...

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References

Business Wire. "Stratospheric Ozone Study Indicates: More is Needed for Full Recovery Report Released on the UN International Day to Protect the Ozone Layer." Sept. 15, 2003. Database: FindArticles.com. URL:

 http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2003_Sept_15/ai_107753958 

Connor, Steve. "Overpopulation is 'main threat to planet'." The Independent (London). Jan 7, 2006.  http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060107/ai_n15994712 

Forliti, Amy. "Conservation efforts fuel school rivalries." The Associated Press. June 9, 2006.  http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/09/AR2006060900417.html

Statistical Research
A study performed by Sarah Kang and Lorenzo M. Polvani from the Columbia University claims the Earth's ozone layer hole has affected atmospheric circulation in the Southern hemisphere all the way to the equator, leading to increased rainfall in the subtropics (Kang, 2011). Previous work showed the ozone caused a dominant westerly jet stream in the mid-latitudes to move toward the pole with accompanying shifts in precipitation patterns. This study used different computerized climate models in the effort to identify the impact of the ozone depletion compared to other factors. The experiment found moistening in high latitudes, drying in mid-latitudes, and moistening in the subtropics. etween fifteen and thirty five degrees south, the researchers saw about a ten percent increase in precipitation. The depletion of the ozone layer, from 8 to 25 miles up, has caused severe cooling in the stratosphere, expanding to the troposphere, and altering in the…...

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Bibliography

Significant Ozone Hole Remains Over Antarctica. (2011, Oct 21). Retrieved from Science Daily:  http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111020145106.htm 

Kang, S. & . (2011, Apr 22). Study Links Ozone Hole to Weather Shifts. Retrieved from The Earth Institute Columbia University:  http://www.earth.columbia.edu/articles/view/2802 

Karoly, D. (2012, Sep 14). The Antarctic ozone hole and climaste change: an anniversary worth celebrating. Retrieved from The Conversation:  http://theconversation.edu.au/the-antarctic-ozone-hole-and-climate-change-an-anniversary-worth-celebrating-9404 

Ozone Hole Watch. (n.d.). Retrieved from NASA:  http://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/meteorology/annual_data.html

3).
Because of this discovery, scientists and politicians across the world have banded together in order to fight emissions and the use of products that contain CFCs. Most are aware of the grim forecast that awaits humankind if action is not taken -- a world consumed by ocean. Still, some do not believe that human behavior plays a role in global warming. hatever one's opinion, one can be sure that the worldwide attempts to implement responsible human interaction with the environment has a favorable political outcome -- globalization and the banding together of the world. In the future, history may write that chemistry was at the heart of a global political peace.

orks Cited

"Chemical of the eek: Ozone." University of isconsin -- Madison. n.d. Chemistry

Department.

"The Ozone Layer." Environmental Literacy Council. 7 April 2008. 16 May 2009.

...

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Works Cited

"Chemical of the Week: Ozone." University of Wisconsin -- Madison. n.d. Chemistry

Department.

"The Ozone Layer." Environmental Literacy Council. 7 April 2008. 16 May 2009.

The plan would be the result of the scientific method, through which the impacts and causes of the current environmental problems would be addressed. Additionally, the scientific method would sit at the basis of the future actions to be taken. These would traditionally include:

The search for alternative sources of energy

The search for renewable sources of energy

The creation of an infrastructure which allowed the propagation and populous use of alternative energies

The education of the population to reduce their levels of consumerism to life necessities

The implementation of stricter regulations which punish economic agents who pollute waters or cut the forests in an unsustainable manner

eplant forests, clean waters and support the sustainable life of the endangered species.

At a smaller size and specific level, the alternative and immediate action to be taken is that of reducing the harvesting of krill by commercial fishermen. This would be achieved through legislative means which forbade the harvesting…...

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References:

Leonard, A., The story of stuff,   / last accessed on October 13, 2010http://www.storyofstuff.com 

Naik, A., 2010, Ozone layer and global warming, Buzzle,   last accessed on October 14, 2010http://www.buzzle.com/articles/ozone-layer-and-global-warming.html 

Antarctic krill conservation project statement of principles and core goals, Antarctic Krill Conservation Project,   last accessed on October 14, 2010http://www.krillcount.org/solutions.html 

At the same time, research on ozone depletion showed the dire situation and helped support pushes for reform and regulation of harmful chemicals being used in such a vulnerable context as in our atmosphere. Many Western nations have passed legislation limiting the types of chemicals and levels which are acceptable, for example the Air Pollution Act in the United States (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2010).
Conclusions

With this growing amount of data, it is clear that stricter regulation will be necessary to curb future ozone and water pollution as a result of the growth of the aviation industry. We cannot completely ban airline travel, and so resources need to be implemented in finding safer alternatives for the harmful chemicals necessary in massive airline travel.

Appendixes

Appendix a

Increased Air Traffic in Northern Hemisphere

University of Berlin (http://www.geo.fu-berlin.de/met/bibliothek/Encyclopedia_of_Atmospheric_Sciences/Aircraft_emmisions.pdf)

Appendix B

Approximate Emission Index Levels for Cruise Level Operation of Current Commercial Jet Aircraft

Species Emission index (g kg 1)

CO2…...

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References

Holzman, David. (1997). Plane pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives. 105(12). Retrieved February 21, 2010 from  http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/qa/105-12focus/focus.html 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2000). Aviation and the Global Atmosphere. IPCC Working Groups. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from  http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_sr/?src=/Climate/ipcc/aviation/014.htm 

University of Berlin. (2010). Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, Volume 1-6. Institute for Meteorology. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from  http://www.geo.fu-berlin.de/met/bibliothek/Encyclopedia_of_Atmospheric_Sciences/Aircraft_emmisions.pdf 

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2010). Origins of modern air pollution regulations. Air Pollution Control Orientation Course. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from  http://www.epa.gov/apti/course422/apc1.html

At the time, the industry sought to examine both oil pollution in general and ocean dumping as well as land-based sources of ocean pollution. According to ang, "More significant was the rapid technological development in the design of large-sized oil tankers which required constant rule changes. By 1973 it was evident that the 1954 convention provisions were inadequate or outdated, and by then the likelihood of the 1954 convention coming into force was rather doubtful" (334).
The new protocol ultimately entered into force in January 1978. The 1973 version of MARPOL was comprised of 20 articles concerning general obligations under the convention (e.g., prohibition of violation of requirements, rules for ship inspection, enforcement, reporting on incidents involving harmful substances, and most importantly, five technical annexes or regulations on 1) oil pollution; 2) control of noxious liquid substances in bulk; 3) harmful substances carried by sea in package forms or in…...

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Works Cited

Advice on Impact of Reduction in Sulfur Content of Marine Fuels Marketed in the EU." (2002, January 1). European Commission Study C.1/01/2002.

Brewer, Stuart. (2005, March 15). "Marpol Annex VI sets sulphur test." DNV Germany. [Online]. Available: http://www.dnv.de/Publikationen/classification_news/class_news_1_2005/MarpolAnnexVIsetssulphurtest.asp.

Chasek, Pamela S. Earth Negotiations: Analyzing Thirty Years of Environmental Diplomacy. New York: United Nations University Press, 2001.

Consultation Paper regarding the European Commission's proposal for a Directive amending Directive 1999/32/EC as regards the sulphur content of marine fuels. (2003, July). European Parliament.

U. (Website of the European Commission, 2007).
Educational institutions have also taken an interest in the matter. Stanford University for instance has been engaged in promoting responsible behavior of the consumers. They have also conducted studies to reveal the impact of global warming and the performances achieved in reducing its negative effects. They have also promoted the sources of alternative energy (Stanford University, 1995).

The governments in several American states have also formed alliances to fight off the malign effects of global warming. "As more and more states band together to fight global warming, their efforts are moving beyond mere symbolism and becoming big enough to make a real dent in the problem [...] More than half of the nation's 50 states -- including populous California, Texas and New York -- have joined together in regional coalitions aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from power plants, boosting the use of renewable energy…...

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References

Kelly, E., March 25, 2007, States Work to Reduce Global Warming, Gannett News

1995, Avoiding Global Warming, Stanford University, accessed on October 31, 2008http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/avoid.htmllast

2008, Ambitious Targets Agreed to Reduce Global Warming, Website of the European Commission,   Ast accessed on October 31, 2008http://ec.europa.eu/news/environment/070309_1_en.html .

Threat of Climate Change, EcoBridge,   Ast accessed on October 31, 2008http://www.ecobridge.org/content/g_tht.html .

Americans will face important decisions as consumers, voters, and global citizens.
We need to understand that global warming has to be treated as a problem for all in order to properly solve it. If we continue to see it as a political issue as we sometimes do, it will never be fully resolved. Earth has to be made livable for everyone. It is not a place for first world or third world countries. It is a place for every human being and all life present here. Thus the issue must be seen clearly and humanitarianly instead of turning into another senseless political debate.

K. Taylor, "apid Climate Change," American Scientist 87 (1999): 320-327.

Scientists' Statement on Global Climatic Disruption, 1997" (Washington, DC: Ozone Action, 1997). Online at www.ozone.org/stateii.html.

K. McDonald, "Debate Over How to Gauge Global Warming Heats up Meeting of Climatologists," the Chronicle of Higher Education (February 5, 1999); D. Bender and…...

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Richard J. Pierce Jr. Energy Independence and Global Warming Environmental Law. Volume: 37. Issue: 3. 2007. 595+.

J. Lubchenko, "Entering the Century of the Environment: A New Social Contract for Science," Science 279 (1998): 491-497.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: IPCC Second Assesment Report (Geneva, Switzerland: World Meterological Organization, 1995); P. Martens, "How will Climate Change Affect Human Health?" American Scientist 87 (1999): 534-541.

International egulation of Tourism in Antarctica
Since the mid-1980s, Antarctica has been an increasingly popular tourist destination, despite the relative danger of visiting the largest, least explored -- and arguably least understood -- continent on earth. Beginning with the 1959 treaty establishing Antarctica as an international zone free of claims of sovereignty by nation's that had been instrumental in establishing research stations there, there has been almost constant negotiation about how to administer regulations pertaining to the preservation of life forms on the continent, what those regulations should be, and what sanctions should be applied and by whom.

To understand the depths of the negotiations, and the potential for discord, it is necessary to understand what the continent offer the 65% of global nations that are party to the 1959 and all subsequent treaties. To understand the possible future of Antarctica, it is necessary to outline treaty attempts to minimize commercial interests…...

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References

Antarctica. Siyabona Africa Web site. Retrieved September 28, 2004 at http://balule.krugerpark.co.za/africa_antarctica.html

Chile Web site. Retrieved September 17, 2004 at  http://www.visit-chile.org/antartica/antartica.phtml 

Australia urges regulation as tourism to Antarctica escalates. (2004, March 24) Agence France Presse English. Retrieved September 14, 2004 at  http://www.highbeam.com .

Bulgaria in Antarctica. Retrieved September 15, 2004 at http://www.bluelink.net/antarctic/ant_en/BGant.htm

The former had been neglected. This was a very serious kind of neglect, she said. She concluded that unless the nitrogen problem was confronted and adequately contained, climate change would not be solved (ohan).
Toxicity

EPA established that exposure to indoor NO below the 53 ppb outdoor standard could lead to respiratory symptoms among children with asthma, especially in a multi-family setting (elanger 2006). This effect continues to be a public health issue because of the number of people exposed to the gas. According to the U.S. Census, more than half of all U.S. households use gas. Their primary source of residential NO is a gas-fueled cooking appliance. This was the summary finding of a study conducted with 1,002 participating families in Connecticut and southwestern Massachusetts from 1997 to 1999. It associated indoor NO with increased respiratory symptoms among asthmatic children. At present, there are no U.S. standards for indoor levels…...

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Bibliography

Belanger, K., et al. (2006). Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide exposure with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. 10 pages. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine: American Thoracic Society

Bohan, S. (2007). Nitrogen overdose. 4 pages. Oakland Tribune: ANG Newspapers

Fields, S. (2004). Global nitrogen. cycling out of control. 9 pages. Environmental Health Perspectives: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Osenga, M (2005). EPA Proposes stationary diesel emissions regulations. 3 pages. Diesel Progress: Diesel and Gas Turbine Publications

Impact of Road Traffic on Air Pollution in Urban Areas

Road traffic is a significant contributor to air pollution in urban areas. Vehicles emit a range of harmful pollutants that can have adverse effects on human health and the environment. Understanding the impact of road traffic on air pollution is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate its consequences.

Major Air Pollutants from Road Traffic

Particulate Matter (PM): Comprises tiny particles suspended in the air, resulting from vehicle exhaust, brake wear, and tire abrasion. PM can cause respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Gases released during the combustion of....