Psychology: Foundations, Theories, and Modern Relevance

Introduction

One of the most fascinating and complex fields of study in today's scientific world is psychology, the scientific examination of human behavior. Psychologists, as professionals, can prove to be an extremely useful resource, especially since mental disorders tend to be just as complicated as physical disorders and, often, much less apparent. The field of psychology has grown tremendously in the past century, with numerous innovations coming to the fore from various illustrious individuals, proving that psychological theories can be applied to any human being and his or her behavior, regardless of whether a problem exists or not. Psychology, therefore, is no longer merely a study of those who cannot function well in society; it has rather become a means through which we, as a society, can understand ourselves and function better as individuals. The following sections examine this vast and intricate field by beginning with a history of its foundations, continuing with the ways psychology has been shaped by influential individuals and pertinent contemporary issues, and concluding with the ways psychology functions in society today, both in diverse and personal contexts.

If asked on what foundations psychology is based, one would receive three main answers: historical, philosophical, and empirical. This section examines each of these elements. Before beginning, however, it is important to provide a clear definition in order to place them in context. Psychology can be defined as "a science of behavior and mental functioning that uses both quantitative and qualitative research studies to develop and test hypotheses and put forward theories and models that explain human behavior."¹

In other words, psychology is the study of human nature and of humans as beings who are constantly responding to an ever-changing environment. Scientists further argue that the complexity of psychology cannot be overstated, and that one reason it requires both quantitative and qualitative approaches is that the mind is the most difficult organ to study — though many strides have been made in this area.

Foundations of Psychology

It is important to begin with the historical and philosophical foundations of psychology, for they provide the basis for the field as a whole and contain its oldest records. Psychology was present from the very beginnings of modern humankind, including during Antiquity in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. To speak of history without philosophy is incomplete, as the Greeks were vital to initiating and furthering the study of psychology. According to historian Richard McCleod,

"Western intellectual history always begins with the ancient Greeks. This is not to say that no one had any deep thoughts prior to the ancient Greeks, or that the philosophies of ancient India and China […] were in any way inferior […] it was the Greeks that educated the Romans and, after a long dark age, it was the records of these same Greeks, kept and studied by the Muslim and Jewish scholars as well as Christian monks, that educated Europe once again."²

It is therefore important to begin with the ancient Greeks and examine what they believed about psychology, placing this within the historical and philosophical foundations of the discipline.

For example, Protagoras, a Sophist, could very well be considered the Father of Relativism. He maintained that one cannot find an absolute truth, but only truths given to various individuals under various conditions by perception. Thus, different truths hold different meanings for different individuals. Furthermore, truth, goodness, and beauty are always subjective and relative, according to Protagoras.³ McCleod further describes the ancient Greek's views:

"Everything that we know is in part a function of the knowing agent. The data of direct experience may be accepted as such; what is not given in direct experience must always be questioned […] Knowledge may extend beyond experience, but the interests and limitations of the thinker will determine the nature of the product […] truth depends on the perceiver rather than on physical reality […] because perceptions vary with the previous experiences of the perceiver, they will vary from person to person […] what is considered to be true will be, in part, culturally determined because one's culture influences one's experiences."

These words describe the thought processes of many people, yet they are situated in a context of individuality — within the distinction Protagoras draws between appearance and reality. This duality is a key thread running throughout Greek philosophy with respect to psychology, and it is mirrored in the thought of other Greek philosophers, thereby forming part of the historical basis for modern psychology.

McCleod further comments on these Protagorean beliefs by stating that appearances are the familiar things and events of daily perception, and that appearances are deceptive is a "truism." For example, a stick appearing bent when submerged in water, or hallucinations and other mental irregularities that diverge from reality, are all matters of perception, according to McCleod. For this reason, the world is limited to what one can perceive and comprehend, and the perceiver can never "transcend his own perceiving and thinking process."⁴ These very ideas form the basis of psychology, where perceptions are constantly analyzed to better understand an individual both externally and internally.

In the same historico-philosophical vein, it is important to mention Plato, another Greek philosopher who held a somewhat different view from Protagoras. Plato believed in dualism — dividing a person into two parts. The first part, according to the philosopher, contained imperfections, specifically the body. The second part, represented by the mind and the soul, was, however, perfect and pure. According to McCleod, Plato "held that all knowledge is innate and can be attained through introspectively searching one's inner experience."⁵ In this way, an individual can use this duality and his or her perceptions to analyze himself or herself and discover something about his or her own nature — a process that begins to resemble modern psychology quite closely.

The final element of psychology's foundations is the empirical, which is best examined through a short history of more contemporary psychological practice. Empirical inquiry — achieving results through observation or experience — is most evident in the history of modern psychology. Some of the most important discoveries were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with contributions continuing to the present day. Among the most significant empirical milestones was the opening of the first psychology laboratory in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the pioneers in the field. After this first German laboratory, an American student of Wundt opened his own lab at Johns Hopkins University in 1883. Three years later, Joseph Jastrow was awarded the first doctorate in psychology and eventually served as one of the first presidents of the American Psychological Association.⁶

With the dawn of the 20th century, functionalism (focusing on the acts and functions of the mind rather than its internal contents), psychoanalysis (the analysis of unconscious drives and conflicts through the examination of dreams and free association), and structuralism (holding that mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple events) all developed. These various schools of thought together promoted the opening of the first psychology clinic and the advancement of experimental psychology, including the development of IQ tests.⁷

By the early 1920s, various philosophies were circulating, including those mentioned above, alongside the addition of behaviorism, which focuses on observable behavior. The 1920s also saw innovations such as the Rorschach Test and the founding of the Menninger Clinic, which took a compassionate approach to treating mental illness. Perhaps the most significant empirical milestone of the era was the performance of the first lobotomy in the United States as early as 1936. Building on such developments, by 1951 America had its first drug to treat depression, and the same decade witnessed the birth of biopsychology, psychopharmacology, humanistic psychology, and cognitive psychology.⁸

Contemporary Psychology

With the great strides made in psychological treatment during this period, it is important to transition from foundations to contemporary psychology. This section examines the four branches mentioned above: biopsychology, psychopharmacology, humanistic psychology, and cognitive psychology.

Biopsychology was advanced by Wilder Penfield, who uncovered the "relationship between chemical activity in the brain and psychological phenomena" through his studies of epilepsy. Psychopharmacology, also involving biological and chemical processes, led to the development of new drugs — especially during the 1950s — and contributed an entirely new approach to treating psychological disorders. The first such drug was called Doriden, an anti-anxiety medication. Other medications soon followed, including antidepressants and further pharmacological treatments for mental illness. Today, many psychiatrists prescribe drugs extensively in preference to more traditional forms of psychotherapy.⁹

Humanistic psychology developed in the wake of psychoanalysis and behaviorism and was led by Carl Rogers, who believed in the fundamental goodness of each person — that individuals were essentially good unless something intervened to change that. This school of thought was known as the "third force" in psychology, as it centered on the "conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-actualization."¹⁰ These concepts are also reflected in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Rogers and Maslow worked extensively together, and many of their philosophies mirror one another.

Cognitive psychology, on the other hand, was inspired by more exact sciences, particularly work in mathematics and related fields. Psychologists in this tradition began to focus on "cognitive states and processes," such as information processing.¹¹ Cognitive psychology is significant in that it transformed how people thought about the field. Whereas behaviorism had previously reigned supreme, cognitive psychology shifted attention toward topics such as attention, memory, and problem solving — areas that provide ways to "improve memory, increase decision-making accuracy, and structure educational curricula to enhance learning."¹²

Due to the rapid advancements in psychology during the mid-20th century, certain issues were left aside. With constant innovation driven by new beliefs and technologies, those who were physically disabled or belonged to underrepresented ethnic groups were somewhat overlooked. This section addresses how diversity issues have been handled historically and how people from diverse backgrounds have struggled to gain influence in the field of psychology. The first case study examines physical disability, and the second addresses ethnic minorities who have not yet achieved adequate representation in the profession.