This paper surveys American history from the Progressive Era through the Great Depression, examining the major events and reforms that shaped the nation. It covers the discovery of oil at Spindletop, the founding of the NAACP, the expansion of women's voting rights, key business legislation such as the Hepburn Act and the creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor, and the Spanish-American War's role in projecting American power. The paper then traces the transition from the prosperity of the Roaring Twenties to the stock market crash of 1929, analyzing how the Great Depression transformed the relationship between the federal government and American citizens.
The economy of the United States faced a fair share of challenges toward the close of the 19th century that had to be addressed before they spiraled out of control. Beyond economic troubles, there were also widespread social injustices and an imminent conflict between capital and labor. The Progressive Era emerged in the final years of the 19th century and lasted through 1917 (Sage, 2010). It was a period that ushered in new ideas and sweeping reforms, some of whose benefits are still enjoyed today. Among the major events that characterized the Progressive Era were the birth of the American oil industry in 1901 and the establishment of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
The first American oil was prospected at Spindletop in Texas, setting a precedent for the evolution of the nation's oil sector. The oil was discovered on a salt dome near Jefferson County on January 10, 1901. This discovery significantly impacted the politics, economy, culture, and general social lives of Americans (Sage, 2010). The oil industry not only contributed to the rapid growth of the United States' political and economic power but also became one of the country's major employers, with a significant number of Americans working in the sector to this day.
The creation of the NAACP was a major milestone in the development of racial values and attitudes in America. The NAACP was, and remains, committed to ensuring the political, educational, social, and economic equality of all persons, and to eliminating racial discrimination (NAACP, 2012). During the Progressive Era, racism was rampant and women's rights were persistently ignored. However, the founding of the NAACP enhanced the protection of equality and human rights. It changed the culture of race relations in the United States by protecting vulnerable populations from discrimination, strengthening law enforcement against hate crimes, and fostering greater tolerance for diversity and difference.
Women from the Western Frontier earned the right to vote before those from the southern and eastern states. The fact that women could vote at all revolutionized the mindset of the general population and had profound effects on the political landscape (Bridgen, 2012). Initially, women were entrusted with the responsibility of raising children and performing household chores while men were presumed to be breadwinners. Men from the eastern states viewed women's suffrage in the western frontiers as a threat to societal ethics and morals (Bridgen, 2012). Eastern states were unreceptive to women's suffrage, in part because of fears about social disruption, and in part because higher rates of population diversity in those regions made implementing suffrage laws more complicated.
This dynamic helps explain why women from the West were the first to participate in electoral processes, particularly in the election of 1912. Women in the eastern states first took part in the electoral process in 1913. When the Nineteenth Amendment was passed, suffrage became a universal right for American women, bringing the women's suffrage movement to its successful conclusion (Bridgen, 2012).
A number of significant corporate legislative measures were passed during the Progressive Era. The relationship between business, government, and society was reshaped by the creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor in 1903 and the passage of the Hepburn Act in 1906. The Department of Commerce and Labor was later divided into two separate departments — the Department of Commerce and the Department of Labor — in order to resolve conflicts between capital and labor (Grossman, 1973). This division was intended to treat capital and labor as two complementary arms of business, promoting the interests of industrial manufacturing in America.
The Hepburn Act was designed to establish and regulate maximum railroad rates. It strengthened railroad regulations and brought national railroad companies under the authority of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). Under the Hepburn Act of 1906, the ICC was empowered to establish and regulate maximum railroad rates, and railroad companies were required to justify their accounting procedures and the fairness of their rates (Commercial Laws, 2011). The act also reduced the unchecked power of employers over their employees, mandating that railroad companies institute an eight-hour workday for all workers, thereby curbing employee exploitation.
"War's role in expanding American imperial power"
"Stock market crash and Hoover's failed response"
During the Great Depression, the government became the primary provider of social and financial assistance to citizens in dire need. The United States government worked to relieve the burden of financial hardship and unemployment borne by its citizens, even as communities struggled to provide for their own basic needs. Since that period, the government has maintained a primary responsibility to support society's most vulnerable members. The federal government remains deeply involved in the social and economic affairs of Americans today — a legacy of the Great Depression that is evident in programs such as unemployment benefits for those who have lost their jobs.
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