Managing Behaviors & Teaching Social Skills in Schools

Introduction: Antisocial Behavior in Schools

Antisocial behaviors in schools have been on the rise, and recent events—such as the shootings at Columbine High School in Colorado—have brought the subject into the forefront of public awareness. No one will argue that schools today are quite different from those of previous generations. Schools are no longer a safe haven for students or faculty. Antisocial behavior does not always escalate into violence, but even when it does not, it disrupts the educational environment and negatively affects every member of the classroom, not only the student engaging in the behavior.

Boys Town was one of the first programs to attempt to quell antisocial behavior by teaching proper conduct in a positive, structured environment. Second Step is a program geared toward preschool and elementary school children that teaches effective social skills. These two approaches were revolutionary and more effective than the old method of using punishment to thwart antisocial behavior. This research explores in depth the literature regarding the effectiveness of Girls and Boys Town and the Second Step program. It examines the history of both programs, their current practices, and takes a critical look at them from the perspective of contemporary behavior management theory. The programs will be evaluated, and recommendations will be given for future research and possible improvements.

Prior to the 1970s, behavior management of antisocial behaviors was punitive in nature. When a youth "acted out," they were punished by expulsion or law enforcement measures. Regressing further, in the Victorian Era, unruly students were beaten with switches to compel proper behavior. It became obvious to Father Flanagan, in Omaha, Nebraska, that these measures were ineffective in preventing undesirable behavior from recurring. He developed an approach based on discipline and structure in an attempt to teach boys proper conduct.

We now know that the decisions people make are based on a complex set of perceived benefits or perceived costs. Punishment alone, or the threat of punishment, may not be sufficient motivation to avoid a certain behavior—especially if the perceived reward outweighs the potential cost. For example, if a boy receives no attention and engages in antisocial behavior, the antisocial behavior will still occur even if there is a threat of punishment, because the attention gained may be more important to the boy than the punishment itself. Those who invented the earlier punitive system made one fatal assumption: they assumed that the prescribed punishment would constitute a genuine threat to the individual being punished. They applied their own values in determining which threat would outweigh the benefit of the behavior, ignoring the role of individual differences in moderating the perceived severity of any given threat.

Boys Town and Second Step are the subjects of this research primarily because they were the first programs of their kind, they are the most widely used, and they are more effective than the old punitive system. However, as with any program, they need to be evaluated periodically in light of the most current research. Their effectiveness over control groups has been empirically demonstrated, but it is now time to take a serious look at whether there is room for improvement. This is the purpose of the current research project.

Behavior management systems based on punishment rest on the theory of avoidance behavior. In its most simplistic form, avoidance behavior means that a person will act so as to avoid an unpleasant situation. An earthworm will exhibit avoidance behavior when it recoils from a match held close to it. However, avoidance theory is far too simple to predict human behavior. Human motivation is driven by a set of rewards or benefits that are weighed against the potential costs of an action. Sometimes these costs or rewards are intangible, such as a feeling of safety or of gaining attention. Each person will place a different value on the same reward based on their particular life experiences, thoughts, and feelings. The theory that a person will always act so as to avoid a prescribed punishment is therefore inadequate for predicting and changing undesirable behaviors.

The ultimate goal of this research is to examine the most popular programs currently used for behavior management, with the hope that new light can be shed on the subject and that improvements can be suggested that will make these programs more effective in stopping the rising rate of antisocial behavior in schools. In order to achieve this goal, current theories and practices must be thoroughly examined and critiqued.

There have been significant improvements in the field of behavior management in recent years, and we are far from the days of "Spare the rod, spoil the child." We are beginning to understand the issues behind antisocial behavior and to address them through a holistic, family-centered approach. However, recent statistics on the rise in mental health problems in schools indicate that much remains to be done, and that it must be done quickly if we are to return our schools to a safe and nurturing learning environment.

In order to properly assess the current state of the Girls and Boys Town and Second Step models, this research focuses on several primary questions. The first is: "What is the current state of the Second Step and Girls and Boys Town models?" The second is: "How effective are these models in curbing future antisocial behavior?" The third examines the previous two questions in light of current learning and behavior modification theory: "Do these models conform to current theory and practice?"

Girls and Boys Town and Second Step are vast improvements over their predecessors based on punitive measures. However, the most current of these theories—Second Step—is over thirty years old. This research explores the hypothesis that, even though Second Step and Girls and Boys Town are improvements over the old system, they do not employ the latest theories in their teaching strategies and are, while an improvement, severely lacking in scope and current application in the behavior management field.

The Boys Town Educational Model is a comprehensive school-based program that relies on immediate feedback and correction regarding social issues. It promotes positive classroom attitude and relationship building (Thompson et al., 1999). The method focuses on resolving conflicts in a productive and non-aggressive manner through a scripted format centered on 16 basic social skills (Connolly, 1995).

Historical Overview of Behavior Management

The Second Step program is similar to the Boys Town Model and uses classroom discussion, activities, and role-play to foster empathy, problem solving, and anger management skills (Frey et al., 2000). Both programs are scripted and structured, and they share several key features. However, there are notable differences. Second Step is family-focused and seeks to involve the family in the process. The Boys Town approach may involve the family but is primarily focused on behavioral shaping in the child, and emphasizes the resulting end behavior rather than the internal dialogue that leads to it. These methods are similar in technique but differ in basic philosophy.

Both Boys Town and Second Step are widely used in school systems and have both shown success compared to schools without such programs. However, much more study needs to be conducted on the effectiveness of the individual models. Perhaps the true answer lies in developing a future model that is a hybrid of the two. The current models are effective, but it is clear that even more must be done to have a significant impact on the rising rate of antisocial behavior in schools.

Antisocial Behavior is defined as any behavior that is harmful or of no benefit to the person exhibiting it.

Avoidance Theory suggests that a human will avoid a behavior that produces negative consequences. It ignores many other important factors in human decisions and behavior.

Least Restrictive Environment refers to the school setting in which the student is able to function most like other members of their peer group.

Motivation refers to the reasons why a person chooses to perform or not perform certain behaviors.

Punishment means a negative consequence for an action.

Reward means a positive consequence for an action.

Expulsion means disallowing a person to attend school, thereby isolating the individual from the school environment.

In the Victorian Era, prior to the beginning of the 1900s, behavior management was ruled by the popular phrase, "Spare the rod, spoil the child." Misconduct in school was dealt with in a swift and harsh manner. Behavior management was accomplished through fear and threats. While this may have been effective in the actual management of the classroom in the short term, it was hardly effective in teaching children to manage their behavior outside the classroom, nor did it address the underlying issues behind their behavior.

In 1912, a Jesuit priest, Father Flanagan, recognized the problem and decided to take a new approach to the outdated punitive system. He resolved to teach boys how to manage their emotional issues and achieve discipline in their lives. His program stressed self-discipline through success. His basic idea was that order and structure would help boys achieve success, and that this achievement would be self-rewarding, motivating the boys to continue improving on their own. He emphasized teaching rather than punishment for bad behavior.

In 1914, Father Flanagan opened a homeless shelter for men where he promoted a positive atmosphere and helped residents get back on their feet. In 1917, Father Flanagan expanded this idea and began Boys Town. Many of the boys came to Father Flanagan after being ordered there by the courts; others simply walked in off the streets. In 1921, the home was moved ten miles outside of Omaha. In 1926, Father Flanagan's shelter for lost boys was officially named Boys Town (Oursler & Oursler, 1949).

Theoretical Issues in Youth Violence

In the beginning, Boys Town resembled an institution of the era. The setting was highly structured, and even though a system was in place to teach the boys social skills they would hopefully carry when they left, it was still rather punitive in nature. Father Flanagan offered more reward than the traditional system, but the emphasis remained on punishment. It was a step in the right direction, but knowledge of motivation at that time was limited compared to what we know today.

In 1974, Boys Town responded to a change in attitude toward punitive measures and began to explore the reasons behind a youth's behavior, adopting a more holistic approach to behavior management. Behavior management became more personalized and less "one size fits all." In 1979, girls were admitted to Boys Town, and in 2000 the name was changed to Girls and Boys Town (Connolly, Dowd, Criste, Nelson, & Tobias, 1995). Many new theories on motivation and behavior management have since been incorporated into the program, although the primary focus remains on providing a structured environment and the tools a youth needs to succeed in life.

The 1970s were a time of great change and innovation in the field of behavior management. One pivotal study conducted during this period in Seattle examined a group of adult and juvenile prostitutes and found that a large number of them had been sexually abused as children. This prompted the development of a program to prevent sexual abuse called the Committee for Children's First Curriculum: Talking About Touching. This program was an improvement over Boys Town in that it searched for the reasons behind a behavior rather than simply treating the behavior itself. Boys Town was treatment-focused, whereas this new approach sought to explain behavior and resolve the issues that led to it. This second-generation program concentrated on preventing child abuse. However, it still did not go far enough, and eventually the focus changed to finding and addressing the underlying familial causes of child abuse. This program is called Second Step, a curriculum-based program that concentrates on preventing child abuse by identifying and dealing with its underlying causes.

Second Step and Girls and Boys Town are the most widely used programs in schools today for preventing antisocial behavior. However, studies indicate that many teachers feel ill-prepared to handle behavior management issues. These programs are revolutionary, but the continuously rising rate of antisocial behavior and violent crime connected to it are evidence that there is still a great amount of work to be done. These programs must be examined in light of current knowledge and theory, and recommendations must be made to increase their impact on stopping the rise of antisocial behaviors among youth.

Media attention has frequently focused on violence in schools. However, the goal of this research is to attempt to prevent violence by identifying the factors and conditions that lead to this behavior. Violence is extreme, but there is a definitive connection between antisocial behavior in youth and an eventual escalation to violence. Therefore, the key to resolving this issue lies not in reactive measures taken after the fact, but in preventing violence by teaching coping mechanisms and providing emotional support to students who are at risk for antisocial behavior.

As discussed, human behavior is shaped by complex forces rather than simple environmental reactions. Many of the studies on which Second Step was based were conducted in the 1970s. In 1981, B.F. Skinner found that behavior occurs as a result of three interacting levels: biological/genetic, behavioral, and cultural. Our motivations and reactions are a product of the interplay between these three elements. Embry (2001) found that attention to these three variables could provide an effective means for reducing antisocial behavior and the resulting violence.

Wilson and Hernstein (1985) found that genetic factors alone cannot account for the rapid changes in violence among youth, as genetic factors would change more slowly than current rises in violence indicate. Certain biological factors could make a person more prone to violence than others, such as exposure to toxins, drugs, or alcohol (Mirsky & Siegel, 1994). However, many conclusions in this area are based on hormonal studies in animals and still fail to account for the many cases in which people are exposed to these items but do not resort to antisocial behavior. This indicates that biological factors may be a contributing element, but cannot be considered the sole cause of antisocial behavior.

Biological effects cannot be ignored altogether. There are many hormonal interactions that may make a person more sensitive to emotional events (Carlson, 1994), and these interactions are highly complex (Capra, 1996). Embry et al. (1996) discuss the effects of dopamine on the brain, noting that certain events—such as fighting—increase dopamine levels. Importantly, positive events such as praise or reward can elicit the same neurochemical response. Two studies support the theory that in a poor environment, violence will be high (Mattaini, 1991). However, in environments where there are sufficient positive reinforcers, violence will be low (McDowell, 1988). This suggests that humans are in a constant quest for dopamine and that there are several channels for obtaining it.

This biological reaction provides a theoretical basis for the use of reward. McDowell (1988) also found that a drop in serotonin levels was responsible for the lasting effects of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, given serotonin's role in the fight-or-flight response. These physiological changes help to determine the effects of reward and punishment on the human brain but still do not help us identify who will engage in antisocial behavior or what can be done to prevent it.

Motivational theory tells us that every action is a choice. We make these choices based on potential payoff versus potential costs. Mattaini et al. (1996) found that violence and antisocial behavior serve a functional purpose in those who engage in them. Pence and Paymar (1993) found that rage and violence offer a sense of power and control. Simply telling a person not to do something is not enough if they do not have a substitute for the feeling of power and control they are seeking. Violence is self-rewarding and has the biological effect of producing extra dopamine. In a sense, it acts like a drug—it fills a void in the person's life, and something else must fill that void in order for the behavior modification process to be successful.

Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey (1989) and Patterson, Reid, & Dishion (1992) identified a cultural and social pattern that may indicate a trajectory toward antisocial behavior:

Early childhood is filled with antisocial role models, such as poverty, drug abuse, and abuse or neglect. Children learn antisocial behaviors from their parents. The child then enters school equipped with a repertoire of antisocial and maladaptive behaviors, quickly becoming an outcast among peers and teachers. The child fails academically and exhibits low self-esteem; seeking a sense of power and control, they may begin bullying others. Finally, the child may seek the companionship of similarly alienated peers, which feeds further antisocial behavior, creating a vicious cycle in which violence becomes the primary means of feeling in control.

Many studies confirm the existence of a "culture of violence" in inner cities today. The face of this culture has changed, and violence is escalating, which coincides with a rise in violence in schools (Butterworth, 1998; Cohen & Nisbett, 1994; Cohen, Nisbett, & Bowdle, 1996). Some blame rising television violence for this trend, while others argue that television violence is only a reflection of broader societal trends. Some studies cite the criminal justice system as a perpetuating factor. The United States incarcerates a higher percentage of adults than any other developed nation (Reiss & Roth, 1993). As noted earlier, there are many reasons for the failure of the punitive system as a deterrent to future violent acts. In this context too, the emphasis must be placed on healing and finding the underlying reasons for the behavior, as further punishment is likely to be ineffective in curbing it.

We now know that violence may be rooted in biological, behavioral, or cultural factors—or in a complex interaction between them. The exact cause of violence in any given person cannot be adequately predicted. Part of this depends on a person's individual resilience and coping mechanisms. Some individuals manage large amounts of stress without apparent harm, while others buckle under slight pressure. Individual reactions and a complex interaction of biological, behavioral, and cultural factors are responsible for these differences.