Gulf War Primary Sources: Desert Shield and Desert Storm

Background: The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait

The Gulf War began in the oil fields of Iraq and ended with the liberation of Kuwait by American and allied forces acting under the authority of the United Nations. Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, both forged by the Americans, became collectively known as the Gulf War, and much has been documented about the conflict since its end.

What actually led up to the Gulf War was Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein's desire to raise oil prices in order to help pay off the massive debts his country had incurred during its war with Iran. The Arab nations bordering Iraq did not support the plan to raise prices and refused to go along with Hussein's proposal. He believed that by entering Kuwait and defeating that country, he would gain access to its massive oil reserves and thereby save his own nation. He did not anticipate the world's reaction to his plan. As one account records, "At 0200 2 August 1990, the Iraqi Hammurabi Armored and Tawakalna Mechanized Divisions supported by Iraqi Special Forces and the Median Armored Division invaded their neighbor to the southeast, the sovereign nation of Kuwait."

Immediately, the United Nations passed a resolution declaring the invasion illegal and placing sanctions on Iraq. Iraqi forces were also massing along the Saudi Arabian border, indicating that they planned to attack there as well. President George H.W. Bush assembled ground, air, and sea forces to repel the Iraqi advance, and eventually 30 other allied countries joined the effort, with another 18 sending aid in some form or another.

Bush's Address to the Nation

Operation Desert Shield was the five-and-a-half-month United States response to the invasion, moving a massive amount of military personnel and equipment into the region. Operation Desert Storm was the five-week assault on Iraq that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait and resulted in their surrender on February 28, 1991. The United States spearheaded both operations, and they demonstrated the mobility and strength of American military power.

On January 16, 1991, President George H.W. Bush addressed the nation regarding the Iraqi invasion. In his "Address to the Nation on the Invasion of Iraq," he chronicles the steps the United Nations, the Arab League, and the United States had taken in an attempt to persuade Hussein to leave Kuwait peacefully. He describes how Hussein consistently ignored or rebuffed those overtures, and how the United States and other countries — including Great Britain and Canada — had been massing troops in the region, with the consent of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, to repel Iraqi forces. He also addresses the effect of sanctions, acknowledging that while they had some impact, they did not force Saddam out of Kuwait. He states: "While the world waited, Saddam sought to add to the chemical weapons arsenal he now possesses, an infinitely more dangerous weapon of mass destruction — a nuclear weapon."

This speech is a clear example of a president leading his country into war while emphasizing the nuclear threat in order to gain the support of an American public that was extremely wary of another overseas conflict — one that many compared to Vietnam, and which was indeed the first major conflict since that war. Bush and his speechwriters repeatedly invoke the atrocities Hussein's forces committed in Kuwait, including references to "maimed and murdered innocent children," and he quotes American fighting forces several times in an effort to swell national pride and build support. He ends the speech by saying: "Tonight, as our forces fight, they and their families are in our prayers. May God bless each and every one of them, and the coalition forces at our side in the Gulf, and may He continue to bless our nation, the United States of America."

This is a speech designed to silence opposition, defend his position, and mobilize public support for the invasion — and it largely achieved those goals. Many people supported the war, believing that chemical and nuclear weapons were genuinely at stake, and that American forces effectively neutralized that threat during the campaign.

The Whirlwind War: U.S. Army History

The Whirlwind War is a U.S. Army book detailing the war and the Army's participation in it. The book begins with an overview and background of the region and the sources of tension there, then chronicles the buildup of troops masterminded by the United States, the expansion of the defensive shield, the development of the offensive, the offensive itself, the victory, and the war's aftermath. As a product of the U.S. Army, the document offers a pro-Army perspective on the operations and decisions that led to the deployment of troops to the Gulf. It is a history of the campaigns and fighting forces, but it is also a document designed to present the Army and its leaders in a favorable light. In one chapter, for example, the authors state: "Cheney's directive unleashed what became the most concentrated and complex projection of American military power since World War II."

Later they write: "Wherever they went in those initial attacks, Peay's troops achieved tactical surprise over the scattered and disorganized foe. By mid-afternoon they had a fast-growing group of stunned prisoners in custody." This book incorporates opinion and speculation — something that most rigorous historical works and source documents avoid — which reduces its overall credibility as an objective account.

Nevertheless, it is a very detailed examination of the operations and battles in Iraq and Kuwait, and it is a valuable resource for anyone seeking to understand the specifics of how units fought during the Gulf War. Readers should weigh that value against the fact that the book is clearly a promotional piece designed to highlight the Army's successes and portray the Iraqi regime in a negative light. Near the end of the book, the authors write: "Even as the men of the 3d Armored Division departed on 7 May, after providing nearly 1 million meals, over 1 million gallons of water, and 28,000 medical visits, they saw the children 'by the sand track, one hand tapping their teeth, another their stomachs in the universal refugee sign language for "Give me food."'"

This excerpt further illustrates the promotional nature of the work — emphasizing the Army's humanitarian deeds in Iraq. That said, the book does offer excellent descriptions of the combat that Army members faced, and it provides a solid account of the pre-invasion buildup and preparation. It also contains numerous illustrations and photographs identifying many of the key players and depicting ground-level action. The photographs may be among the book's greatest strengths, as their sheer volume helps readers develop a genuine sense of what was happening in the air and on the ground in Iraq and Kuwait during the operations.

Conclusion: Evaluating Gulf War Sources

Evaluating and discussing primary historical documents regarding the Gulf War has been an enlightening exercise. The different documents and their sources reveal the many different perspectives one can bring to war and its results, and those perspectives manifest in very different ways on the page. Many of these works "spin" information to serve their own institutional purposes, while others present factual, unemotional accounts of what happened. This contrast underscores a critical lesson for any historian or researcher: careful attention must be paid to the source of information before it is used in research. Understanding who produced a document, for what audience, and toward what end is essential to interpreting it accurately.