The objective of this study is to examine intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Toward this end this work will examine the literature in this area of study. The work of Covington and Mueller (2001) states that it has been believed that providing extrinsic rewards such as "praise, gold stars, and school grades – inhibits the will of students to learn." (p.157) Covington and Mueller believe that this belief is upheld by "the widely held assumption that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are not just separate processes, but in compatible, if not antagonistic." (p.157) The debate is ongoing as to whether extrinsic (external ) or intrinsic (internal) motivation is more effective in motivating the individual to learning, achieving, or otherwise realizing higher levels of performance or more optimally achieved behavior. While testing in previous studies has shown both types of motivation to be effective, the question remains as to whether extrinsic or intrinsic motivation is more effective in motivating the individual.
Motivation Theory: Intrinsic v Extrinsic
The objective of this study is to examine intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation. Toward this end this work will examine the literature in this area of study.
The work of McCullagh (2005) is reported to state that motivation "can be defined as the intensity and direction of effort." (Wilson, nd, p.1) Wilson reports that motivation is demonstrated in the evidence to promote "learning, performance, enjoyment, and persistent…" (nd, p.1)
The work of Covington and Mueller (2001) states that it has been believed that providing extrinsic rewards such as "praise, gold stars, and school grades -- inhibits the will of students to learn." (p.157) Covington and Mueller believe that this belief is upheld by "the widely held assumption that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are not just separate processes, but in compatible, if not antagonistic." (p.157)
Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand is stated to be that which is derived "from within the person or from the activity itself" and as such has a positive effect on the individuals "behavior, performance and well being." (Bateman and Crant, nd, p.3) Bateman and Crant report that intrinsic motivation is a concept with roots in the competence motivation posited in the work of White (1959) and similarly addressed by Maslow (1949) and Alderfer (1969).
I. Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Motivation
The introduction of intrinsic needs by psychologists was followed by the emphasis on intrinsic motivation by management scholars and Herzberg (1966) provided a description of intrinsically motivating tasks stated to have characteristics of key 'motivators' including such as "responsibility, challenge, achievement, variety, and advancement opportunity." (Bateman and Crant, nd, p.5) In addition task variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback" were identified in the work of Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the primary task characteristics known to bring about intrinsic or internal motivation. (Bateman and Crant, nd, p.5)
Intrinsically motivated behavior has been more recently posited to be gained from and to give satisfaction to "innate psychological needs, including needs for competence and autonomy." (Deci & Ryan, 1985) Deci (1980) held that the individual's view of personal control are such that provide satisfaction for those needs and that are the primary feature that distinguishes intrinsic motivation from extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation is a concept that experienced its evolution separate from and following the extrinsic motivation theory. Deci (1971) however, posited that his laboratory results demonstrated that extrinsic motivation is not a requirement for motivation and that indeed that such extrinsic rewards in reality work toward undermining intrinsic motivation and upheld this belief through use of cognitive evaluation theory in 1980 which states that "the impact of extrinsic rewards on motivation depends on the receivers' interpretation of the rewards." (Bateman and Crant, nd, p.6)
A 2005 report from Ohio University professor Steven Reiss states that there is "no real evidence that intrinsic motivation even exists." (p.1) According to Reiss "the issue is more than academic." (Ohio State University, 2005, p.1) Reiss reports having "developed and tested a theory of motivation that states there are 16 basic desires that guide nearly all meaningful behavior, including power, independence, curiosity and acceptance." (Ohio State University, 2005, p.1) Reiss reports that all of these desires can be reduced to two types and states that there is a great difference in what makes individuals happy "…for some, competition, winning and wealth are the greatest sources of happiness, but for others, feeling competent or socializing may be more satisfying." (Ohio State University, 2005, p.1)
Wilson notes that the work of Weinberg and Gould (2003) states that three types of intrinsic motivations exist and that these are:
(1) knowledge;
(2) accomplishment; and (3) stimulation. (nd, p.2)
Wilson reports that intrinsic motivation for knowledge occurs when the individual gains pleasure and satisfaction from learning. Intrinsic motivation for accomplishment is stated by Wilson (nd) to occur when pleasure and satisfaction is gained from "mastering various skills." (p.2)
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