This paper examines zoning and subdivision regulations as essential tools in urban land use planning. It defines and analyzes four primary zoning categories — residential, commercial, agricultural, and industrial — alongside three regulatory frameworks: Euclidean zoning, form-based codes, and performance-based zoning. The paper then explores common problems with zoning and subdivision regulations, including inflexibility, inconsistency, and regulatory burden. It also discusses the importance of permit review, conditional uses, variances, and administrative remedies in both zoning and subdivision contexts. Throughout, the analysis integrates a biblical stewardship perspective, drawing on scriptural principles of justice, neighborly love, and responsible care of creation to frame the social and ethical dimensions of land use planning.
Zoning refers to the process of dividing a particular area into different districts, each with its own set of regulations and restrictions regarding land use (Schleicher, 2012). Subdivision regulations, by contrast, refer to the rules governing the division of land into smaller parcels (Peiser, 2001). The primary types of zoning include residential, commercial, agricultural, and industrial.
Residential zoning is intended for single-family or multi-family residences. Its purpose is to create a peaceful living environment where families can enjoy a high quality of life. In the Bible, we see God's desire for people to have a place to call home. In Psalm 68:6, it says, "God sets the lonely in families; he leads out the prisoners with singing." Residential zoning can help provide a place for families to find community and build their lives.
Commercial zoning is intended for commercial activities such as retail stores, office buildings, and restaurants. Its purpose is to provide a space for businesses to thrive and generate economic activity. In the Bible, God shows an interest in business and commerce. In Proverbs 31:16, it says, "She considers a field and buys it; out of her earnings she plants a vineyard." Commercial zoning can help provide a space for people to pursue business and contribute to society (Checker, 2011).
Agricultural zoning is designated for agricultural activities such as farming and ranching. Its purpose is to protect farmland and ensure that it remains available for food production. In the Bible, God expresses special concern for the poor and vulnerable. In Leviticus 19:9–10, it says, "When you reap the harvest of your land, do not reap to the very edges of your field or gather the gleanings of your harvest. Do not go over your vineyard a second time or pick up the grapes that have fallen. Leave them for the poor and the foreigner." Agricultural zoning can help ensure that there is enough food to go around and that everyone has access to the resources they need.
Industrial zoning is designated for heavy manufacturing and other industrial activities. Its purpose is to provide a space for industries that may have negative impacts on the environment or on residential areas. In the Bible, God has given humans the responsibility to care for the earth. In Genesis 2:15, it says, "The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it." Industrial zoning can help ensure that there is a balance between economic development and environmental protection.
Euclidean zoning, form-based codes, and performance-based zoning represent three distinct approaches to regulating land use and development (Ghorbanian, 2020). Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice among them depends on the specific context and goals of a particular community.
Euclidean zoning is the traditional approach, based on separating different land uses into distinct zones. It is characterized by rigid separation of land uses, such as residential, commercial, and industrial. However, Euclidean zoning has been criticized for being inflexible, promoting sprawl, and contributing to social and economic segregation. From a scriptural perspective, Jesus encouraged interaction and engagement between different types of people. In Luke 10:25–37, Jesus tells the parable of the Good Samaritan, which emphasizes the importance of caring for others regardless of their background or social status. Euclidean zoning, with its strict separation of land uses, can hinder the kind of interaction and engagement that Jesus encouraged.
Form-based codes focus on the physical form of buildings and streetscapes rather than on the use of the buildings. This approach emphasizes creating a sense of place and fostering walkable, bikeable, and transit-oriented environments. Form-based codes have been praised for their ability to create vibrant, attractive communities. From a scriptural perspective, God values the beauty and order of creation. In Genesis 1:31, it says, "God saw all that he had made, and it was very good." Form-based codes can help create communities that are aesthetically pleasing and consistent with God's desire for order and beauty.
Performance-based zoning focuses on achieving specific outcomes, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions or increasing affordable housing (Grant et al., 2013). This approach emphasizes setting goals and using data to measure progress toward those goals. Performance-based zoning has been praised for its ability to promote sustainability and social equity. Scripturally, God cares about justice and fairness. In Isaiah 1:17, it says, "Learn to do right; seek justice. Defend the oppressed. Take up the cause of the fatherless; plead the case of the widow." Performance-based zoning can help promote justice and fairness by setting specific goals and measuring progress toward them.
Problems and issues with zoning categories include inflexibility, lack of consistency, and regulatory burden. Zoning and subdivision regulations can be rigid and inflexible, which can hinder development and limit innovation. For example, Euclidean zoning separates different land uses into distinct zones, making it difficult to mix uses and create vibrant, walkable communities. Furthermore, zoning and subdivision regulations can vary widely from one jurisdiction to another, creating confusion and uncertainty for developers and property owners. This variation also makes it difficult to ensure consistency and fairness in the application of regulations. Finally, zoning and subdivision regulations can be complex and burdensome, requiring significant time and resources to navigate the permitting process. This creates barriers to entry for small developers and property owners and can limit the supply of affordable housing.
The importance of zoning categories is evident in the mechanisms of permit review, conditional uses, variances, and administrative remedies. Each serves as a step in ensuring oversight and provides significant safeguards for the community.
Zoning and subdivision regulations are essential for ensuring that development is consistent with the goals and vision of a particular community. Permit review helps to ensure that new development is safe, healthy, and consistent with the character of the community. Biblically, God values the safety and health of his people. In Deuteronomy 22:8, it says, "When you build a new house, make a parapet around your roof so that you may not bring the guilt of bloodshed on your house if someone falls from the roof." Permit review helps to ensure that new development is safe and consistent with God's desire for the well-being of his people.
Zoning and subdivision regulations allow for conditional uses — uses that are not typically permitted in a particular zone but can be allowed under certain circumstances (Elliott, 2012). This allows for flexibility and can help support innovative and diverse uses. Scripture indicates that God values creativity and innovation. In Genesis 1:26, it says, "Then God said, 'Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.'" Conditional uses allow for creativity and innovation in development, consistent with God's desire for human beings to exercise stewardship over creation.
Zoning and subdivision regulations also allow for variances, which are exceptions to the standard regulations. Variances provide flexibility and can help ensure that development is consistent with the goals and vision of a particular community (Elliott, 2012). Scripture helps us understand that God values compassion and mercy. In Leviticus 19:18, it says, "Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against anyone among your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord." Variances can help ensure that zoning regulations are applied fairly and with compassion, consistent with God's desire for justice and mercy.
Zoning and subdivision regulations provide administrative remedies, such as appeals processes, to ensure that property owners and developers have a fair and equitable process for resolving disputes (Elliott, 2012). God values justice and fairness, as reflected in Isaiah 61:8: "For I, the Lord, love justice; I hate robbery and wrongdoing." Administrative remedies ensure that zoning and subdivision regulations are applied fairly and justly, consistent with God's desire for justice.
"S/D regulation features, costs, and limitations"
"Public health, environment, and flexibility in S/D regs"
Zoning and subdivision regulations are important tools for managing land use and ensuring that development is safe, healthy, and consistent with the goals of a particular community. They can be used to promote economic development, protect the environment, and preserve the character of existing communities. However, they can also create challenges and tensions, particularly when they are inflexible or perceived as overly restrictive.
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