Patronage jobs allowed local and regional businesses to flourish, offered political viability for minority groups, and ensured welfare services that state or federal funding would not have provided.
However, urban machines also colluded with organized crime, created impenetrable legacies of city boss cabals, and fomented corruption. Voters cast ballots based on the spoils system, diminishing the relevance of democratic freedoms. The patronage system also boosted special interests and prevented businesses from thriving independently of the machine. Around the 1920s, muckrakers began exposing the inner workings of the urban machine. Progressive politicians championed legitimate social welfare reform at the local level, speaking out against government corruption and collusion with big business (Caswell 2001).
The Progressive movement helped to eliminate or at least to diminish the scope of urban machine governments, even though Chicago's would persist well into the 1970s. In other cities like New York and Boston, the strong mayor system prevailed. A strong mayor system is the local equivalent of federalist-style government. In especially large metropolitan centers, city issues and institutions are shared throughout an entire county so that the municipal government has a considerably wide scope and extensive power. Mayor-council forms of government may include a strong or a weak mayor. A strong mayor has executive powers that far supersede that of a weak mayor, who may be little more than a figurehead. New York and Boston both have strong mayors. Both New York and Boston also once boasted strong urban machines including New York's infamous Tammany Hall.
The Council Manager form as well as the Commission form of municipal governance offer more directly democratic alternatives to the strong mayor model. In cities with a Council Manager form of government, a major may be elected but has less power than in strong mayoral cities. Commissioner systems also include officials directly elected by voters and the mayor usually holds a ceremonial rather than authoritative role. Whether a council or commissioner form, most large cities must allocate special duties through different departments. Taxation and treasury; public works, transportation, elections, welfare administration, and a host of other duties are shared among council members or city managers. Department heads are often highly specialized professionals who may be elected on the basis of their abilities as well as their professional connections. At least in theory, city commissioners...
There is a definite chance that both parties could resolve the prolonged conflict successfully if they find and act on ways to be in command of their shared lack of trust. On the other hand, if the conflict is seen in terms of a neoliberal point-of-view, Israel's military efficiency and powerfulness is a great threat for Israelis. To cut a long story short, the main goal on which all
As Japan became a modern state under this period, a status system was formed, which designated specific sectors of the society into various classes and functions. The status system was composed of the samurai, the commoners (peasant farmers, merchants, and artisans), and the daimyo, the land-holding class. During the Meiji period, the samurai class had the highest position and the most favorable privilege among the classes. However, as the
Marketing (Water Fans, India) Industry outlook The market in India for water fans or misting fans as they are also called is problematical at best. Without doubt, the climate (except in the northern mountains) is hot; the problem is, it is also quite humid. Still, the Indian people have been looking for ways to stay cool for centuries. It was India that gave the world the slatted shutter; when air comes in
architects in the 21st century is the issue of sustainability. Not only is there no consensus opinion on how to approach the issue of sustainability in academic circles but there is also no formula of integrating sustainability into architectural curriculum (Wright, 2003). This deficiency underscores an even more stressing problem, however: as Edwards and Hyett (2010) note, "the techniques and technologies of green design are now generally understood --
Catholic church and public policy have remarked that the members of American clergy in general, without even excepting those who do not admit religious liberty, are all in favour of civil freedom; but they do not support any particular political system. They keep aloof from parties, and from public affairs. In the United States religion exercises but little influence upon laws, and upon the details of public opinion; but it
Social Disorganization Theory There are myriad examples in the literature of how the social disorganization theory links street crimes with ecological themes in certain tough neighborhoods. The sociological aspect of the theory -- wretched socioeconomic conditions and mean, gang-dominated streets offer more of an accounting for crime or delinquency than the individuals who commit crimes -- has been tested and referenced as valid by numerous scholars and researchers. The theory seems
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