Training of the Metropolitan Police

¶ … Training of the Metropolitan Police Department

Context of the Problem

Brief History of the District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Police/

Community Relations since World War II

Major Problems Preventing Positive Relations between Communities and District of Columbia

Metropolitan Area Police Force

Can Training Programs Enhance Community

Relations for the District of Columbia Metropolitan

Area Police Force?

What Training Modules Can be Used to Enhance Relations between Surrounding Communities and the District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Police

Force?

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

NEEDS ASSESSMENT for TRAINING of the METROPOLITAN POLICE DEPARTMENT

Introduction

Context of the Problem

The issue of poor training has weighed heavily on the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department over the last few years. This issue hinders the necessary trust and interaction between police and the communities they serve (see map at Appendix a). Other issues that come about due to poor training are greater numbers of injuries among police officers, which lessens the number of active police available. In some cases, inadequate training has caused additional stress on the small number of active police remaining because they are forced to carry the weight and there remaining officers may be poorly training as well. The credence of every police department should be one that believes that training is one of the most important responsibilities of any law enforcement agency. It is important that they create and/or produce well trained officers that are better prepared to act decisively and correctly in a broad spectrum of situations. In addition, each training experience results in greater productivity leading to more solved crimes and effectiveness, presenting less dismissed cases. Lastly, training fosters team work and cohesion of aim.

Based on observations, surveys, and interviews within the community, officers and administrators, the D.C. Metropolitan Police Department (DCMP) can improve in various ways. By doing so, the DCMP will decrease incidents of extreme use of force, violation of civil rights, dismissal of cases due to improper search and seizure, faulty arrest and poor community policing. The search for tailored, hands-on training opportunities will bring about adequate resources, higher performance, fulfilled expectations of both community members and police officers, integration of department along the lines of its core values, context, policies and mandated issues. Better or new training of community-oriented police should receive close scrutiny and in this is currently being done; however, the pace of review and implementation remain inadequate to achieve immediate results. The DCMP needs to face this issue with a clear vision of how all of these issues intertwine when servicing a diverse community. For instance, when dealing with performance or lack thereof in mass demonstrations in the area, if the police have not interconnected the training of crowd control and de-escalation in a cultural diverse setting, it may result in troubling experiences for both the police and its citizens and visitors alike. This issue is highly relevant to the concerns regarding the need for DCMP training because of the nature of the communities the organization serves. Washington, D.C. is the site of numerous demonstrations and protests that take place on a daily basis, and in some cases these events become disruptive and even violent. When the police are trained to view each entity as a standalone learning experience the interconnectedness of every issue as it arises is mishandled.

These issues facing MPDC were generated over the years and have been the source of high profile accusations. It is clear that the new leadership of the MPDC recognizes how classroom foci instead of hands-on training adversely affect policing. Although former Chief Ramsey knew the issues being faced by his officers, the poor training provided during this period in the department's history produced little solution to the problems being faced. In a 1998 keynote speech delivered by former police chief Ramsey, he stated that three major issues that restrain many inner-city police from achieving their ultimate goal, which is to maintain law and order in a diverse and dynamic community. The three major issues identified in the speech were: (a) police-community race relations; (b) youth and school violence; and - drug abuse. In addition, other issues identified by the authors of "Training the 21st Century Police Officer" included the need for training in the use of force, search and seizure methods, arrest techniques, community policing, and diversity training were all vital components of proper police training today needed to produce effective and efficient police officers.

Under the leadership of former Chief Ramsey, the MPDC faced very difficult times that were specifically related to poor training in general and a paucity of leadership emphasis on hands-on training in particular.

The strict focus on classroom training permitted many officers to pass courses with flying colors, but a statistical comparison of crimes, crimes solved, and reports of improper police handling will show that the years under former chief Ramsey were deficient compared to the current leadership provided by Chief Cathy Lanier. The present police chief (2007) deployed many senior officers responsible for administrative duties to work alongside junior officers, thereby creating a mentoring relationship that has resulted in the formation of a series, "All Hand on Deck." This series of meetings and brainstorming sessions had discussed ways to avoid increased crime rates during high crime-rate periods, as well as the formation of Operation TIPP (Terrorist Incident Prevention Program), a unit dedicated to coordinated counter-terrorism strategies.

Statement of the Problem

The problem of inadequate or poorly designed training can result in officers who lack the requisite preparation needed to act decisively and correctly in a broad spectrum of potentially life-threatening situations. Training is the key to developing law enforcement officers who are able to respond to such events with the split-second timing needed to save lives and property. Indeed, in the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, these issues have assumed even more relevance for police forces across the country, but they are particularly significant in the nation's capital which contains countless priceless icons and symbols of the country's heritage and prestige. The attractiveness of the city's historical and governmental sites as terrorist targets was made amply clear with the targeting of the Pentagon and perhaps even the White House itself, and the thousands and thousands of visitors that flock to the nation's capital naturally expect and deserve to be treated with courtesy and respect.

In this challenging environment, identifying opportunities for improving training programs for police officers just makes good business sense because better trained officers will be more productive and enjoy a higher level of morale. Unfortunately, in the past, many of the training opportunities provided by the MPD failed to provide the type of outcomes expected and needed, and a poorly trained officer is poorly equipped to deal with the exigencies that go hand in hand with the job. In fact, this dearth of effective training resulted in unsolved crimes and hundreds or perhaps even thousands of cases that were dismissed because of faulty policing methods. It is little wonder that so much attention has been focused on how to better provide high-quality training programs for police departments today, especially given the high-profile cases in recent years that have adversely affected police relations with the communities they serve. Therefore, additional assessment is needed to understand how poor training has affected the morale of the police community. The efforts of the DCMP have seen an increase in minority citizen complaints, the rise of hate groups, and the inappropriate use of force in some situations.

Based on the foregoing, it is clear that the MPDC needs to develop a clear understanding of its own organizational culture so police officers can practice and represent a unified set of values and beliefs. This process starts with recruitment and selection practices, policies, procedures, training and development, and the actions its officers take when enforcing the law. The MPDC has seemingly adopted a culture that has developed without much thought or guidance. In this environment, there is frequently conflict between the new leadership ideology and the reality of what is taking place in the department. The face that some policies and guidelines are overlooked leads to a higher incidence of misconduct many times. If a significant percentage of the department's police officers view the use of force as an acceptable way to solve conflict, what can be done when the community naturally reacts negatively? What happens when the younger generations see that their parents have little or no respect for those who are tasked with protecting and serving the public, and for providing a safe environment for them? One of the major problems that exists between police departments across the country and the minority communities they serve is the use of deadly force. Over the past few years, the MPDC has improved this statistic, but past impressions remain poignant even today.

The organizational culture of the MPDC is also important because it contributes to the effectiveness of the department. An organizational culture that emphasizes appropriate policing techniques and places a high regard on the lives and well-being of its police officers will likely be readily embraced by new recruits, but this will only hold true to the extent that the organization's leadership "walks the walk" and continues to provide top-down support for such training initiatives. Based on the foregoing considerations, it is suggested that the DCMP restructure their existing training programs and administration so that a more unified and centralized plan is in place, as well as providing for better instructor qualifications, evaluation, learning retention and more efficient and effective use of resources which are by definition scarce.

These broad general issues were refined for the purposes of this study into the research questions stated below.

Research Questions

What is the background of the District of Columbia area policy and community relations since World War II?

What are some major problems preventing positive relations between communities and the District of Columbia Metropolitan area police?

Can training programs of the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department enhance community relations?

What training modules can be used to enhance relations between surrounding communities in the District of Columbia Metropolitan area law enforcement?

Significance of the Study

Research Design and Methodology

Organization of the Study

Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature

Importance of Training.

As an old adage advises, "Law enforcement is a dirty business, but someone has to do it" and the citizens of the United States have entrusted this "dirty" responsibility to the nation's municipal police forces at the local level. In recent years, though, the responsibilities and duties of the nation's police forces have increased significantly, with the growth and intensification of cross-border terrorism, violence, white collar crimes, and also such developments as greater human rights consciousness (Bedi & Agrawal, 2001). As Henry (2004) points out, although many law enforcement officials recognize the need for effective training programs, they may differ greatly in what such training programs should accomplish and who should receive them. Nevertheless, the need for effective training programs is great in virtually any industry, but especially so in police departments where laws constantly change, where citizens and visitors can be and usually are unpredictable and where politicians frequently override evidence-based practices with politically popular approaches to law enforcement.

According to Bedi and Agrawal, "The work of a police officer is itself more stressful than that of others. His real challenge is to effectively counter stresses and tensions generated by factors like insurmountable problems of terrorism, extremism, crime, impediments in enforcement of social legislations, undue interventions by constitutional and extra legal power centers on behalf of law breakers, poor inter-personnel relationship in the department etc., all falling under the category of external job situation" (p. 103).

Beyond these on-the-job and external stressors, police officers also routinely experience various problems resulted from increased family tensions, relations, and strained relationships with friends (Bedi & Agrawal). In view of these powerful forces on the lives of law enforcement officials today, the importance of having a well trained cadre on board cannot be overstated, and there is a hundred years' worth of research into police training programs to serve as a framework in which to deliver such training, and the evolution of the police training in the United States is discussed further below.

Evolution of Police Training in the United States.

During the first half of the 20th century, a number of initiatives emerged across the country that helped to professionalize the police forces of the several states which have been used as models in the years since (Morn, 1995). Following the end of World War II, though, the majority of the developments in police education took place in California where various law enforcement training and education programs were introduced by the University of Southern California, Fresno State and San Jose State, and Los Angeles State College based upon a policy of interchangeable courses (Morn). According to this author, "The same instructor taught identical courses at daytime and nighttime to accommodate the ever-shifting work schedules of police officers. Such a system would be used by other colleges, especially the more urban ones" (p. 72). By 1960, Los Angeles State had enrolled 700 students in its police training courses and Sacramento State College had already expanded its evening courses in policing to the regular daytime program in 1952 (Morn). This same level of growth and development of police programs was mirrored in California junior colleges or community colleges during this period as well (Morn).

Today, police training programs are widely regarded as the strongest predictor of police knowledge of the law and represent a fundamental component of all well-operated police forces around the world (Dripps, 2001).

Overview and History of the Washington, DC Metropolitan Police Department.

In 1790, Maryland and Virginia ceded portions of their territory for the purpose of establishing the Federal City. For the next 10 years, the Federal City was policed by constables appointed by these two states. In 1802, when the original charter of Washington was approved, police authority was centralized and power was granted to the city itself to establish patrols, impose fines, and establish inspection and licensing procedures. Until the creation of the Metropolitan Police Department in 1861, the city had only an auxiliary watch with one captain and 15 policemen (Brief history of the MPDC, 2008).

In 1861, President Abraham Lincoln took personal interest in founding a regular police department for the District of Columbia. It was a time of constant danger in the Nation's Capital. With the beginning of the Civil War, an army was billeted in the city, government employees were increased by ten-fold, and hordes of unsavory elements descended upon the District's few square miles. President Lincoln personally dispatched an emissary from the newly created Board of Metropolitan Police Commissioners to New York City to become familiar with that system, which itself was based on the world-acclaimed Metropolitan London Police Department (Brief history of the MPDC).

The ideas and knowledge gained from this study led to the creation of the Metropolitan Police Department on August 6, 1861. In September of that year, attorney William B. Webb was appointed the first Superintendent of the Police, with an authorized force of 10 sergeants and a number of patrolmen as needed, but not to exceed 150. Up to 10 precincts were authorized. The Superintendent of Police was paid $1,500 annually, with sergeants earning $600 and patrolmen $480 (Brief history of the MPDC).

The sergeants and most of the personnel for two precincts were sworn in that September. Officers had to be U.S. citizens, able to read and write the English language, have been DC residents for two years, never convicted of a crime, between 25 and 45 years of age, and at least five feet, six inches tall. The men went to work right away in 12-hour shifts, seven days a week with no days off and no vacations. They were issued neither equipment nor badges, and they had to obtain their own handguns. The first arrest made by a Metropolitan Police officer was on a charge of intoxication (Brief history of the MPDC).

From that modest beginning, the Metropolitan Police Department grew in size, function, and professionalism in the Nation's Capital. In 1881, the first women were appointed to serve as matrons, and in 1918, three policewomen were recruited to form the nucleus of the Women's Bureau. The Women's Bureau handled all matters pertaining to female adults and juveniles coming into official contact with the police. Policewomen investigated causes of delinquency and recommended solutions using either legal action or social treatment. In 1919, the forerunner of the Training Division was begun as the "School of Instruction" on the third floor of the 7th Precinct. Each group of 22 officers took a 30-day course in the fundamental duties of police officers, the law of arrest, and court procedures. In 1930, a training school was established, expanding the course to three months and bringing in outside experts from various fields (Brief history of the MPDC).

Because of its presence in the federal city, the Metropolitan Police Department has played a unique role in history-making events of our nation. In 1865, when President Lincoln was assassinated, the young MPDC assisted the War Department's intensive investigations to locate the assassin, John Wilkes Booth. In 1881, MPDC police were again involved in national tragedy when President James a. Garfield was shot at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Depot on B. Street. An MPDC private seized the assassin before he escaped from the scene. Attempts on the lives of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Ronald Reagan, and then Council Member (and future mayor) Marion S. Barry Jr., have very much involved our Department. Tragic events such as the assassinations of President John F. Kennedy, his brother Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr. -- "as well as happier events such as the many presidential, mayoral, and Council inaugurations, and national parades and marches -- "have made the MPDC experts in crowd management and in providing assured, professional service (Brief history of the MPDC).

Today, the Metropolitan Police Department includes more than 4,400 members -- "approximately 3,800 sworn police officers and more than 600 civilian employees. Today's MPDC is committed to the same proud ideals and traditions of the department in its earlier years. And while serving and protecting the community remains central to the MPDC's mission, the department is also committed to building safer neighborhoods in partnership with the community (Brief history of the MPDC).

Today's MPDC remains a remarkably diverse department. Nearly one in four of all sworn officers is woman, placing the MPDC among the national leaders in this regard. And Cathy L. Lanier made history when she was named the first female chief of the MPDC, beginning in 2007. Approximately 70% of the MPDC's sworn members are black, Hispanic or Asian, meaning that the department closely mirrors the makeup of the resident population it serves. As the Metropolitan Police Department strives to maintain its rich diversity, the department has also raised its hiring standards and taken other steps to enhance the professionalism of the force (Brief history of the MPDC).

On September 23, 2007, Chief Cathy L. Lanier announced a major restructuring of the Metropolitan Police Department. The reorganization allows the MPD to better serve the District (see organizational chart at Appendix B). The revised organizational structure consists of the Executive Office of the Chief of Police to include six bureaus:

Assistant Chief, Executive Officer

Patrol Services and School Security Bureau

Homeland Security Bureau

Professional Development Bureau

Corporate Support Bureau

Investigative Services Bureau

Internal Affairs Bureau (Organizational chart, 2007).

Besides the Professional Development Bureau (see organizational chart at Appendix C), the DC Police Officers Standards and Training (POST) Board was created by the Omnibus Police Reform Amendment Act of 2000 to bring consistency and continuity to, and enhance the quality of, the Metropolitan Police Department's sworn police officer selection and training functions. In 2004, the authority of the Board was extended to the selection and training of sworn DC Housing Authority Police Department officers. The statutory authority for the DC POST resides in D.C. Official Code 5-107.03 and 5-107.04 (Police Officers Standards and Training, 2008).

The DC POST Board is currently comprised of the following members:

The Mayor or Mayor's designee;

The Metropolitan Police Department Chief of Police;

One Department representative appointed by the Chief, D.C.;

Attorney General or designee;

U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia or designee;

Assistant Director in Charge of the Washington Field Office of the FBI or designee;

representative of the D.C. Superior Court;

One criminal justice educator;

Two community representatives; and, representative of the Fraternal Order of Police (Police Officers Standards and Training, 2008).

Besides the foregoing membership, a representative from the Metropolitan Police Department's Reserve Corps is a non-voting advisory member of the Board. Unless otherwise announced in the D.C. Register, the Board meets the first Monday of every other month (beginning in February) between 5 and 7 pm on the 11th floor of One Judiciary Square (441 4th Street). Anyone interested in the work of the Board may attend the meetings.

The DC POST Board is responsible for establishing standards for District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department and Housing Authority sworn police officers in the following areas: selection and appointment, initial recruit officer training, recruit officer probationary period, sworn personnel in-service training, sworn personnel firearms re-qualification training, and Metropolitan Police Department training instructor certification. In addition, the Board has been tasked with reviewing the Metropolitan Police Department's Reserve Corps selection and training standards and sworn officer tuition assistance program and making recommendations to the concerning establishing a career ladder for investigative supervisors and managers (Police Officers Standards and Training, 2008).

The MPD operates in a highly diverse city which remains one of the most popular destinations in the world for domestic and foreign visitors alike. The demographic composition and key metrics for the District of Columbia are provided in Table ____ below.

Metric

District of Columbia

United States

Population, 2006 estimate

Persons under 18 years old, percent, 2006

Persons 65 years old and over, percent, 2006

Female persons, percent, 2006

White persons, percent, 2006(a)

Black persons, percent, 2006(a)

American Indian and Alaska Native persons, percent, 2006(a)

Asian persons, percent, 2006(a)

Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin, percent, 2006 (b)

Note:

a) Includes persons reporting only one race.

A b) Hispanics may be of any race, so also are included in applicable race categories.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

These tabular data are presented graphically in Figures ____ through __ below.

Figure ____. Comparison of persons under 18 years old, percent, 2006 - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Figure ____. Comparison of persons 65 years and over, percent, 2006 - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Figure ____. Comparison of female persons, percent, 2006 - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Figure ____. Comparison of white persons, percent, 2006(a) - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Figure ____. Comparison of black persons, percent, 2006(a) - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Figure ____. Comparison of American Indian and Alaska Native persons, percent, 2006(a) - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Figure ____. Comparison of persons of Hispanic or Latino origin, percent, 2006(b) - District of Columbia vs. The United States.

Source: Based on tabular data in U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/11000.html.

Some salient trends in crime statistics are also reflective of ongoing training needs and relevant data concerning the incidence of homicide and firearm recoveries are provided in Table ____ and ____ and their corresponding figures below.

Table __.

20-year homicide trend: Washington, D.C.

Number of Homicides

Source: MPD district crime data at a glance, 2008.

Figure ____. 20-year homicide trend: Washington, D.C.

Source: Based on tabular data in MPD district crime data at a glance, 2008.

Table __.

Firearm recoveries: Washington, D.C.*

2005*

2007**

Source: MPD district crime data at a glance, 2008.

Includes 161 guns recovered during community-sponsored gun buy-back operations

Includes 628 guns recovered during gun amnesty programs sponsored in December 2007.

Figure ____. Number of firearm recoveries: 2002-2007 -- Washington, D.C.

Source: Based on tabular data in MPD district crime data at a glance, 2008.

Some trends in the numbers and types of crimes that typically confront the MPD are shown in Table __ below; definitions for these types of crimes are provided at Appendix D.

Table ____.

Rates for specific crimes in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Homicide

Sexual Assault

Robbery

Aggravated Assault

Burglary

Larceny/Theft

Stolen Auto

Arson

Change,

Previous Year

Source: Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

A graphic representation of these data is provided in Figures ____ through ____ below.

Figure ____. Homicides in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Sexual assaults in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Robberies in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Aggravated assaults in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Burglaries in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Larcenies/thefts in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Stolen autos in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Arsons in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Total crimes in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Figure ____. Percent change from previous year for all crimes in Washington, D.C.: 2000-2005.

Source: Based on tabular data in Citywide Crime Statistics -- Annual Totals, 1993-2005.

Finally, a review of the District of Columbia's most recent crime statistics provides some useful insights into what trends are currently in effect and what training modules might be most appropriate for improving community relations and reducing these rates in the process.

Table __.

Crimes that occurred in the District of Columbia, located in the Third, Seventh, Fifth, Fourth, Sixth, First, and Second Police Districts between March 5, 2007 and March 5, 2008.

Number of Crimes that Occurred Between Crime Type

3/5/2006 to 3/5/2007

03/05/2007 to 03/05/2008

Change

Homicide

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Sex Abuse

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/green_arrowt.gif

Robbery Excluding Gun

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Robbery With Gun

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Assault Deadly Weapon (ADW) Excluding Gun

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/green_arrowt.gif

Assault Deadly Weapon (ADW) Gun

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/green_arrowt.gif

Total Violent Crime

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Burglary

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Theft

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Theft F/Auto

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Stolen Auto

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Arson

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Total Property Crime

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Total Crime

http://crimemap.dc.gov/images/red_arrowt.gif

Source: Custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

As can be seen from Table ____ above, the District has experienced increases in several crime type areas in recent months, including robberies with and without guns, and thefts of autos and thefts involving the use of an auto. The trends are presented graphically in Figures ____ through ____ below.

Figure ____. Total homicides in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total sex abuse cases in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total robberies excluding guns in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total robberies with guns in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total assaults with a deadly weapon excluding guns in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total violent crimes in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total burglaries in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total thefts in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total theft f/auto in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total stolen autos in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total arsons in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total property crimes in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

Figure ____. Total crimes in Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2006-March 5, 2006 to March 5, 2008.

Source: Based on tabular results from custom-generated crime statistics report from MPDC Crime Statistics Report, 2008.

When reviewing these key metrics, it must be kept in mind that besides being the nation's capital, Washington, DC is also home to a lot of different types of people. According to Tischler, the District of Columbia is not only "the capital of the most powerful country in the world; it's a major tourist destination and it's a real city of neighborhoods and people, of homes, shops, hospitals, cemeteries, parks, theaters, stores, streets and alleys, big buildings, old places and young children" (p. 10). In other words, despite its historic aspects and site of the central federal government's operations, Washington, D.C. is also a community to almost 600,000 people who want and deserve a safe place in which to live and raise their children. To provide this level of law enforcement, though, requires good community relations but the MPDC has experienced its fair share of problems in the past that have contributed to the need for better training programs today, and these issues are discussed further below.

Chapter 3: Brief History of the District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Police/Community Relations since World War II

In 1972, the impact of the unique status of the organization and the effect of political considerations on the District of Columbia police force was underscored during the controversy that surrounded the agreement between District of Columbia Police Chief Maurice J. Cullinane and a group of Black Muslims known as the Hanifis (Miller, 1980). According to Miller, in order to secure the release of some hostages taken by Hanifis, the police chief negotiated an agreement whereby the group's leader and three of his followers would be released on their own recognizance until a grand jury indictment was produced, as well as other stipulations in the conditions of release.

In response to these negotiations, Police Chief Cullinane came under fire from Senate Majority Leader Robert Byrd (Democrat-West Virginia) and Senator Lloyd Bensen (Democrat-Texas) as well as from local Montgomery County, Maryland, Police Chief Robert J. di Grazia (Miller). According to this author, "Di Grazia went so far as to argue that hostage takers should be promised everything and delivered nothing. Cullinane correctly noted that it was important for the police to maintain their credibility. Indeed, it could be readily argued that much of what goes on between hostage taker and negotiator in any set of circumstances is ritualistic, and it is important that both sides maintain their proper roles in the course of the unfolding of the ritual. In the next set of circumstances in which the District of Columbia police must enter into negotiations, the hostage takers will be assured that agreements reached will be upheld, thus making the ritual all the more viable" (p. 32). Subsequent events in the nation's capital city would bear these observations out concerning the need for credibility among the African-American community when the MPD came under scrutiny for its hiring practices during the 1970s.

In this regard, the stipulations established in the Supreme Court's 1976 decision in Washington v. Davis resulted in some community backlash when minority applicants to the MPD filed suit alleging that the personnel-testing procedures used by the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department had an inordinately adverse impact on African-American applicants (Raskin, 2003). The Supreme Court rejected this argument based on a finding that the MPD's personnel-testing procedures were not traceable to a "racially discriminatory purpose." The Supreme Court held that a "civil service exam that resulted in a racially disproportionate failure rate was not unlawful unless plaintiffs could show that the purpose for having the test was to discriminate against African-Americans" (quoted in Raskin at p. 269). The harsh realities for the defeated plaintiffs and the demographic segment they represented, though, suggested that these policies represented yet another form of institutionalized racism, and even worse, these policies were being promulgated by a police department that served a highly diverse community comprised of a large percentage of African-Americans.

During the 1980s, the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department experienced some additional backlash within the community as a result of the adverse public relations generated by some high profile court cases that identified deficient or otherwise inadequate training. For example, in the case of Sypert v. United States (1983), the plaintiff complained that he had been placed in a District of Columbia cell with another inmate who had active tuberculosis. The plaintiff sued the government and administrators alleging negligence, because he was placed in a cell with a tubercular inmate, and subsequent skin tests confirmed the presence of tubercle bacilli in his body; however, because the plaintiff never developed active tuberculosis, the court ruled that he had suffered no physical injury and dismissed the case against the government (Champion, 1994).

An even worse episode occurred a few years later that spoke directly to the need for improved training when the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department was sued by the family of Benny Washington, identified by authorities at the time as being a potential suicide risk (Champion). Washington committed suicide by hanging himself in one of the cellblocks of the MPD jail; as a result, MPD jail officers and administrators were sued because, as the lawsuit alleged, the jail officers had not been provided with adequate training to recognize potential suicide victims and to prevent suicides when they were identified (Champion). According to this author, "It was subsequently disclosed that the Police Academy and a local hospital conducted limited crisis training concerning suicide scenarios. Officers were taught about detecting abnormal behavior and suicidal tendencies" (p. 235). The author goes on to state, though, and to the credit of the MPD jail authorities, that the plaintiff's behavior upon arrest and incarceration did not present any unusual problems for booking officers and there was no basis existed to alert the officers to Washington's suicidal tendencies (Champion). As a result, the federal Circuit Court of Appeals sided with the jail officers, holding that nothing had been unique to differentiate Washington from other inmates, and that the officers had removed dangerous objects from his cell and checked him every half hour during his confinement (Dorman v. District of Columbia, 1989 cited in Champion at p. 235).

In response to these and other community relations needs, the Office of Police Complaints (OPC) and its governing body, the Police Complaints Board (PCB), were created by statute in 1999, and OPC opened to the public on January 8, 2001. The agency is independent of the Metropolitan Police Department (MPD), the District of Columbia's 3,800-member police force, and the D.C. Housing Authority Police Department (DCHAPD), the Housing Authority's 75-member police force, and its mission is to receive, investigate, and resolve police misconduct complaints filed by the public against MPD and DCHAPD officers (About OPC, 2008).

The agency was created by the District to fill the void left by the 1995 abolition of the Civilian Complaint Review Board, which was plagued by inadequate funding and staff, resulting in lengthy delays in the processing and resolution of complaints. The District's new police oversight office was the product of extensive research and careful thought by District officials and advocacy groups. The result was an agency with board members and staff who seek to employ the best practices of citizen oversight of law enforcement, and whose ultimate goal is to provide the public with an independent and impartial forum for the investigation and timely resolution of police misconduct complaints (About OPC).

Some community relations and crime-fighting techniques that have been used since that time include a gun buyback program by the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department in 1997; two Mennonite artists created a sculpture, titled "Guns into Plowshares," using the guns that were collected in this initiative (Utter, 2000). This sculpture is shown in Figure ____ below.

Figure __. "Guns Into Plowshares" in Washington, D.C.'s Judiciary Square.

Source: http://bp2.blogger.com/_IvGiy8W1xF8/R0OzfHbtQRI/AAAAAAAABms/5kWWPKuvJXA/s1600/Guns_to_Plowshare-1w.jpg.

As one retired law enforcement officer observed, the importance and relevance of this sculpture.".. was pointed out when the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to review a 1976 law prohibiting the private ownership of handguns in the nations capital" (Bralley, 2007, p. 2).

Chapter 4: Major Problems Preventing Positive Relations between Communities and District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Police Force

Given the enormous amount of attention and resources directed at improving relations between the District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Department and the various communities it serves suggests that things should be getting better and this is borne out in the statistical analysis provided below. After all, this just makes sense because when something is made a priority it should by definition get better. Moreover, there are some intuitive aspects to community relations that go hand-in-hand with the job. For example, Aben (2004) reports that, "Law enforcement and policing is a universal profession. It has a universal code of ethics to remind public safety personnel of their public accountability. It has a basic set of principles and tenets to guide them in the performance of their duties" (p. 3).

Professional law enforcement authorities typically recognize the need to be respectful when confronting citizens and when the situation calls for it, to use the absolute minimum amount of force required, and so forth based on their own past experiences and anecdotal accounts from other officers. These approaches to policing have been shown time and again to be more effective because they help the police officers accomplish their jobs while maintaining good community relations, which represents a win-win approach. For instance, according to Luna (2003), "Being respectful and courteous goes a long way toward building a relationship. People are a lot more willing to help when they feel the people investigating them are not biased and have at least some understanding of the community" (p. 184). A problem emerges, though, when members of the community or visitors perceive police officers as transcending these universal acceptable boundaries by becoming unnecessarily officious or through the use of unnecessary force.

These issues speak to the type of organizational culture that is promoted within the department, but as noted in the introductory chapter, there has been a lack of attention paid to how the department's culture influenced police officers in the conduct of their duties in the past, and while this has changed in substantive ways in recent months, much remains to be done to undo the lingering effects of ineffective training programs and community ill will that adversely affect the ability of law enforcement authorities to do their jobs effectively.

Certainly, these are highly subjective considerations and law enforcement authorities "on the ground" will likely have a vastly different view of what is needed in a given situation from those being confronted, but this is the essence of good policing and is an absolute ingredient in promoting solid community relations. Therefore, to the extent that police officers recognize the "what's-in-it-for-me" issues involved in receiving training will be the extent to which law enforcement authorities can respond with relevant training programs that can enhance community relations, and these issues are discussed further below as they relate to the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department.

Chapter 5: Can Training Programs Enhance Community Relations for the District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Police Force?

Police training programs have been shown to enhance community relations in communities across the country and around the world. Moreover, modern training programs can help municipal police forces become better integrated into the wider crime-fighting sphere in which they serve. In this regard, Aben (2004) emphasizes that, "The development of modernized police training programs based on world-class academic standards is a proven way to ensure international police cooperation. Becoming globally competitive has become imperative and cutting edge in combating crimes. Global standards also mean modern acquisition of crime-fighting tools and equipment and board understanding of knowledge, skills, and technical know how to maximize its advantages for effective response against crime's sophistication" (p. 3).

Based on their survey of local authorities and police forces, Hirschfield and Bowers (2001) determined that targeted training programs can be highly effective in improving relations between police officers and the communities they serve. While these researchers found a high level of congruence between the priorities of local authorities and police officials that may not be present in the instant case, they did identify some important key areas of competence that describe the range of skills required by community safety and crime prevention practitioners; these were:

Policy analysis, inter-agency collaboration and synergy maximization (joined-up policy-making);

Strategic tasks (including crime and disorder audits, strategy formulation and development);

Project implementation, management, monitoring and evaluation;

Criminality prevention (working with offenders and those 'at risk' - understanding and curtailing criminal careers; development of interpersonal skills);

Working with victims and preventing victimization (understanding patterns of victimization and managing their differential impacts); and,

Community engagement (inter-personal skills and techniques to facilitate community participation, capacity building and development) (Hirschfield & Bowers, p. 265).

The most relevant skills needed for mapping and analysis of crime data were the strategic tasks involved, which these researchers divided into the following three sub-categories:

Practice in strategic community safety;

Theories of strategic practice in community safety; and,

Research on strategic practice in community safety.

Based on their study findings, these researchers recommended police officials responsible for community relations have the following components included in their training:

The design of surveys, including gathering of data on: crime, disorder, social conditions, land use, infrastructure, costs of crime;

The identification of repeat victimization;

Crime mapping and the use of Geographical Information Systems;

Bench marking and the identification of crime reduction targets;

Data quality, best practice and consistency in the recording of crime and disorder incidents;

Data sharing and data protection issues;

Formulation of crime and disorder reduction strategies;

The potential of policy on education, health, housing, urban planning, leisure and employment to reduce crime opportunities and dispositions;

Safety in public spaces;

Security technology and management: strengths and weaknesses of surveillance technologies (CCTV), private security, police patrolling, and 'Watch' scheme;

Potential contribution of town planning and management to public safety (including extension/restriction of entertainment licenses; development of entertainment zones and '24 hr cities'; use of late-night public transport schemes; street lighting experiments, etc.);

Management of neighborhoods (including policing, housing management, concierges, caretakers, rangers and patrols) (Hirschfield & Bowers, p. 266).

Finally, these authorities provide additional instruction on training needs in criminological theories, particularly those most relevant to situational crime prevention, which included:

Applied criminology (what theories of crime, criminality and deterrence can tell us about how best to prevent crime);

Applied social science (what sociological, social geography, political etc.., theories of crime and disorder can tell us about: (1) patterns of crime and 'anti-social behaviour' / 'incivilities'; and (2) implications for 'opportunity reduction');

Community decline, crime and incivilities (including 'broken windows thesis'; zero tolerance, etc.) and community organisation, defence and development (including 'routine activities theory' and 'lifestyle' theory);

Strategic approaches to community safety through situational crime prevention (crime events, rational choice theory, routine activity theory, environmental criminology), design, planning and crime (Hirschfield & Bowers, p. 265).

Based on his analysis of modern police training program needs, De Lint (1998) suggests that there should be greater involvement by social and behavioral scientists, judges, magistrates, criminologists, correctional workers, and lawyers to help identify evidence-based practices to determine what works best and what does not. In this regard, De Lint notes that, "The exposure to the thinking of other professional groups and resulting dialogue will promote effective law enforcement by the utilization of the resources of the behavioral sciences, and by developing a better understanding of the role of the police, the courts, and the correctional agencies in the entire criminal process" (p. 277).

Clearly, there is much involved in becoming an astute law enforcement practitioner of effective community relations, but there are some programs already in place that can be purchased or which can serve as models for training modules that will improve the ability of District of Columbia police officers to accomplish their missions while maintaining and even improving community relations in the process, and these training modules are described further below.

Chapter 6: What Training Modules Can be Used to Enhance Relations between Surrounding Communities and the District of Columbia Metropolitan Area Police Force?

Both in-service and outsourced training from private vendors or other governmental agencies can be used to help MPD officers achieve improved on-the-job performance while also improving morale and community relations. Based on an analysis of the District of Columbia's demographic composition and recent crime trends, it would appear reasonable to maintain that additional training is needed in the following areas.

Training to Address Biased Policing.

The organizational structure of many police departments is such that it results in the development of authoritarian style amongst superior officers of the police force. In this environment, coercion and threats are frequently used and are an accepted way of supervising the work of subordinate police officers (Bedi & Agrawal). As a result of the type of organizational culture, subordinate ranks of police officers become accustomed to the boss-servant relationship only and policemen frequently transfer relationship this into their day-to-day practices with the public (Bedi & Agrawal). According to these authors, "This is against the democratic norms, and also leads to development of non-democratic attitudes among the members of the police force. The police officer has two masters -- one the political head and the other departmental head. The politicians consider police to be a resource which they can use as per their needs, and oblige by rewarding them in various ways. Within the departments, a manipulative game of power is intensely played" (p. 103).

Perhaps as no where else in the country - or even the entire world - do these dual forces play out to the detriment of the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department where the nation's lawmakers convene. The intense and frequently disruptive nature of the federal political oversight and influence has been part and parcel of the problems facing top administrators within the municipal agency. For example, during the early months of 2007, the Metropolitan Police Department (MPD) and the Office of Police Complaints (OPC) issued reports in connection with MPD's Biased Policing Project, which was launched in March 2001 to take a "thorough look at the issues that might impact [MPD's] commitment to provide equitable and unbiased police services to all residents, workers and visitors in the District of Columbia'" (Vorndran et al., 2007, p. 2). In this regard, Luna (2003) suggests that such an initiative is long overdue: "Minorities are gravely over-represented in every stage of the criminal process -- from pedestrian and automobile stops, to searches and seizures, to arrests and convictions, to incarceration and capital punishment" (p. 183).

Both the MPD study and the OPC report addressed racial and ethnic profiling incidents by the police force in the District of Columbia and provided a series of recommendations concerning how MPD, based on input from various community and advocacy groups, could implement steps towards the goal of ensuring bias-free policing throughout the district for both its citizenry and visitors alike. Based on their review of these reports and statistics concerning the incidence of racial profiling in the District, Vorndran and his colleagues formulated the following recommendations:

Review MPD's policy prohibiting racially biased policing and make changes where needed.

Educate officers on how to most effectively interact with people of varying races, ethnicities, and traditions and provide officers with professional traffic and pedestrian stop training.

Develop and implement strong police supervision and accountability systems and practices. Such police supervision and accountability mechanisms could possibly include the installation of car surveillance videos to identify and address any biased policing issues.

Develop screening mechanisms such as background investigations and personal interviews to identify biased behaviors in candidates and establish a police workforce that can use its police powers in an unbiased manner and in a manner that reduces perceptions of bias.

Conduct outreach to diverse communities in order to increase trust and cooperation between police officers and residents.

Evaluate the MPD study and OPC report, and determine whether further stop data collection is needed to address issues raised in the study and report. MPD should also, with the input of the Biased Policing Task Force, determine whether expanded data collection and analysis is needed to examine post-stop practices such as searches and arrests, as well as biased policing issues involving Muslim, and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT), and other diverse communities (Vorndran et al., pp. 7-8).

Beyond the foregoing module components, PCB also recommended that MPD, with the input of the Biased Policing Task Force:

Review MPD's policy prohibiting racially biased policing and make changes where needed.

Educate officers on how to most effectively interact with people of varying races, ethnicities, and traditions and provide officers with professional traffic and pedestrian stop training.

Develop and implement strong police supervision and accountability systems and practices. Such police supervision and accountability mechanisms could possibly include the installation of car surveillance videos to identify and address any biased policing issues (Vorndran et al., p. 8).

Develop screening mechanisms such as background investigations and personal interviews to identify biased behaviors in candidates and establish a police workforce that can use its police powers in an unbiased manner and in a manner that reduces perceptions of bias.

Conduct outreach to diverse communities in order to increase trust and cooperation between police officers and residents.

Evaluate the MPD study and OPC report, and determine whether further stop data collection is needed to address issues raised in the study and report. MPD should also, with the input of the Biased Policing Task Force, determine whether expanded data collection and analysis is needed to examine post-stop practices such as searches and arrests, as well as biased policing issues involving Muslim, LGBT, and other diverse communities (Vorndran et al., p. 9).

To help achieve these goals and mandates, the District of Columbia could use the program developed by the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST) Learning Domain 42 (LD 42). According to Tarver (1999), "Learning Domain 42 is best understood within the context of the POST organization. POST serves 557 law enforcement agencies that employ a total of 75,600 full-time peace officers, 8,200 peace officer reserves, and 6,400 public safety dispatchers. A governing board administers POST, and their responsibilities include the standardization of law enforcement training, and creation of minimum standards of service to the citizens of California. Funding from criminal and traffic fines provides the resources for POST to set hiring standards, officer training, leadership development, management counseling, financial assistance to support training, and statistical information for law enforcement.