Human Resource Management and Ethics

Ethics, Human Resources, Management

Discuss the ethical issues that need to be considered when you (1) design a research project, (2) collect data, and (3) analyze and report data.

When a research project is designed, data is collected, and then the data is analyzed and reported, there are a number of ethical issues that have to be carefully considered. Unfortunately, many researchers who are inexperienced are not clear on how they should address the issues that surround the collection of data (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). That is especially true if the project requires the researcher to collect data from human subjects, as there are additional points that have to be raised and more care that has to be taken (Gorard, 2013; Kara, 2012). The design of the research project should take that into account, and should work with that information from the beginning so that there are no surprises in the future. Without the proper preparation, it can be very difficult for a researcher to collect the data properly, creating further problems when analysis is attempted. This issue can be controlled for at the beginning of the planning phase of the project with proper techniques.

Here the actual design of a project will be addressed, along with the specific ways that data are collected and how that data is analyzed and reported on -- all within the context of remaining as ethical as possible. Ethics in research are a significant part of every study, as they always have to be considered. Some studies have far fewer ethical considerations, because they do not work with human subjects. Other studies require information from people, and when that is necessary there are ethical problems that can arise (Creswell, 2008; Freshwater, Sherwood, & Drury, 2006). Researchers who are not ethical can cause problems with the study, but can also cause difficulties for the people who were willing to participate in the study. These participants need to know that the information they provide will be protected, or they will be much less likely to want to participant -- and that can lead to problems for the study based on the sample size the researcher needs.

Research Project Design

The first issue to be considered when it comes to ethics in research studies is the design of the project itself. A research project can be designed to be qualitative or quantitative, but there is more to the issue than just that. Additionally, there are considerations such as whether human subjects will be used for the study (Rocco, Hatcher, & Creswell, 2011). If participants' information is going to be collected, there are several ways that can be done. They all have their ethical implications. If the study is going to go forward based on a review of past literature, and is not going to contain information regarding any new subjects, then ethics are not a serious concern (Gorard, 2013). Researcher would have a difficult time being unethical by analyzing past studies and creating a literature review on which their current study would be based. However, when human participants are used in the study, there is much more that has to be considered from the standpoint of ethics. This is among the most important considerations in the research project design.

The creation of a research project does not have to be difficult, conceptually. However, it can and does take time and effort to create a project with which one feels comfortable. That is especially true if there are going to be human subjects used in the study. The number of subjects used, where they will come from, and what they will be asked all has to be addressed as part of the project (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). These are areas with which some researchers struggle when it comes to how to act ethically. It is not that these researchers strive to be deliberately unethical, but only that they focus on what they want to get from the study and do not always take how they will get that information into account (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). Additionally, they may not be clear on what they need to do in order to get the information from the participants and still protect privacy.

In order to make sure the research project is conducted ethically and properly from the planning stages, there are several things that must be considered. These will have to be addressed before the data collection can be planned and before the study can move forward, in order to ensure proper procedures. To ensure proper planning for the study from an ethical standpoint, the research should ask and answer the following questions when he or she is creating a research study plan.

How many participants will be used in the study?

The larger the sample size, the more likely the study will be accurate when it comes to a representation of the population which the study is designed to represent (Freshwater, Sherwood, & Drury, 2006). However, that does not mean that a researcher should strive to have thousands of people as a sample size. That is often not realistic, and can slow down the study itself. There are also often differences in the sample sizes used by those who are in university and required to perform a study and those who are doing so for publication and/or throughout the scientific community. Regardless, the research plan cannot go forward until the researcher has determined the number of people who are going to be included in the sample size and determined (and justified) why this is a proper size for the sample for that particular study (Gauch, 2003; Gorard, 2013).

How will the information be collected?

Different ways of collecting information can open up different ethical conundrums. If the information is collected anonymously, that can keep the participants more protected. However, sometimes studies need to have at least basic demographic information from the participants, and other studies need more specific information about their participants (Rocco, Hatcher, & Creswell, 2011). This would be more logical, for example, during a case study research project, where very few participants would be used and more personal information about each participant would be known.

How long will information collection take?

The length of time it takes to collect information from the participants can affect the study (Cohen & Arieli, 2011; Creswell, 2008). If a researcher has to spend hours with a few individuals for a case study the way the researcher relates to those people will likely be very different than the way he or she would relate to hundreds of people taking a 10-minute, anonymous survey (Creswell, 2008). That is important to note, because researchers do not want to become too close emotionally to the subjects of their research. That can present ethical problems and sway the way a researcher collects and provides information, which could render the study invalid.

What disclaimers or other information will be needed?

For participants who are asked to provide personal or demographic information, assurance must be provided that the information is not going to be misused or provided to others (Creswell, 2008). This is vital to a study, and has to be done in order to protect the participants. It would be deeply unethical to take participant information and provide it to others who were not a part of the research team for the study, as that could compromise the identity of the participants and even provide them with grounds for a lawsuit (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). Many universities and other institutions where research is conducted require specific forms to be filled out, detailing the information the researcher will be collecting from human subjects, and why that information is important to the study (Creswell, 2008). Until the form has been approved, the research cannot go forward. This protects the institution, the researcher, and the participants from ethical problems.

Data Collection

The actual collection of the data is where most ethical dilemmas arise (Cohen & Arieli, 2011; Creswell, 2008). However, these problems can be avoided with proper preparation. As mentioned previously, most institutions have required forms and other informational documents that have to be filled out and approved before the data collection process can begin. This is done as a protective measure, and designed to protect everyone involved in the study. Still, it is only a piece of paper, and things can go wrong. That is why the researcher must be very careful with the actual data collection, and must use the method that is most appropriate for the study (Rocco, Hatcher, & Creswell, 2011). There are several methods of data collection that must be addressed here. These are the most common methods, although there are hybrid and combination choices used for some studies.

Case studies

Case studies are the most involved and in-depth type of data collection done in research, and provide the highest opportunity for difficulties with ethics (Creswell, 2008; Kara, 2012). When a researcher studies only a few people over the course of time, he or she can grow close to these people in ways which were not anticipated (Kara, 2012). Naturally, this is a serious concern for the researcher and also for the value of the study. Researchers need to remain distant and neutral in order for them to perform their studies correctly, which can be very difficult to do when one feels a kinship with study participants or begins to see them in a different light (Kara, 2012). This is not to say that researchers should not see their study participants as human, but only that they should strive to keep personal feelings out of the equation. These feelings can affect the collection of the data, which will skew the outcome of the study itself (Cohen & Arieli, 2011; Rocco, Hatcher, & Creswell, 2011).

Surveys

One of the best ways to collect information from people is to ask them to take a survey (Rocco, Hatcher, & Creswell, 2011). These are generally very quick, and that can mean more people will agree to take them. There are a couple of ways to conduct them. Anonymous surveys handed out to random people on the street is one way to collect data. Another way is to advertise for a group of people to come to a particular place at a particular time and complete a survey (Creswell, 2008). These are both acceptable, and which one is used should be based on what data the researcher is trying to collect. Advertising can also mean requesting a certain subset of people, such as those who are in a particular age group, or a specific gender or race (Freshwater, Sherwood, & Drury, 2006). One has to be careful with this kind of advertising, because it can come off as racist, ageist, or sexist, depending on wording. It may also be difficult to get people to show up to take a survey unless there is some kind of incentive for them, and offering an incentive may be considered unethical.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are similar to surveys, but they are more involved. They generally ask open-ended questions for at least some of the information, and that requires that the participants write out answers and opinions instead of just marking a yes/no box (Gauch, 2003; Gorard, 2013). Because questionnaires take more time and are more complex, they are usually not given to random people. Researchers have a specific target demographic in mind, and will generally mail or email these questionnaires to people who fit that demographic (Gauch, 2003). This can work well, although the response rate is often low. Providing information about how the responses will be used is part of being ethical where questionnaires are concerned, and can ease the minds of participants.

Interviews

Interviews are generally conducted face-to-face or over the telephone, but they can also be handled through email or even standard mail. Researchers who conduct interviews will want to notify the other party that the interview will be recorded and/or retained for his or her records in order to remain ethical and upfront with information (Gorard, 2013). Additionally, providing information in writing about how the information is collected, what it will be used for, and how it will be stored is very important to maintaining a proper code of ethics. Participants in a study are more likely to provide information when they understand how it will be used and how it will be protected (Gorard, 2013). These same participants may not want their real names used in the study, which is something the researcher can control and should respect in order to remain ethical.

Because there are so many different ways to collect data from the general public, staying ethical while doing so depends on the type of data being collected and the method used for that collection (Kara, 2012). The information provided by the participants should always be kept confidential unless the participant has specifically agreed to have his or her name or other identifying information attached to the information. For researchers who want to be able to use information at that level, a clearly-worded statement in writing will be necessary (Cohen & Arieli, 2011; Creswell, 2008). To use data that could be tied to a particular person without that person's express permission would be deeply unethical and could also result in the researcher and his or her institution being sued by the participant. Ethics are about more than avoiding lawsuits, but that is a consideration and a part of the issue no matter what type of data collection methods are used in the study. It is the responsibility of the researcher to make sure the data is properly collected and information is protected.

Analysis and Reporting of Data

Analyzing and reporting data has its own set of ethical issues that have to be considered in order to ensure everything is handled correctly. Researchers need to analyze data in a way that does not put their own "spin" on the information, or that does not inject opinion into the data. There is a place for the opinion of a researcher, but it is not in the analysis of the data (Gauch, 2003). One of the ways to address ethics throughout a data analysis is through the type of analysis used. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses can be excellent choices, but they have their differences and that can affect now only how the data is analyzed but the outcome of the study itself. The research project plan that is first created will determine which way the data will be analyzed, and some studies also use a mixed-method approach where they provide both types of analysis on a particular subject. All types of analysis have advantages and disadvantages to be considered.

The mixed-method option is often used when a researcher plans to take the literature that has previously been accumulated on a subject and analyze it qualitatively, but also take new information he or she has collected and analyze it quantitatively (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). That is not always the way these kinds of analyses are handled, but it is one of the most common options. For researchers who conduct mixed-method studies, the only ethical issues are those that surround the new data that was collected. The literature review data that was collected by other researchers in the past does not have ethical issues related to the current researcher or the current study. Human subject participation does have risk for these kinds of issues, though, so any studies that are done using the mixed method must be careful to avoid ethical problems with new information that was collected by the researcher. This means the analysis must be objective as much as is humanly possible.

A quantitative analysis of the data collected for any study can help keep that study ethical (Kara, 2012). This is due to the fact that quantitative analysis is more concerned with facts and figures than with emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and opinions (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). When data is analyzed in a quantitative fashion it is correlated to coded answers (yes/no, agree/disagree, etc.) or to choices made on a scale (1-5, 1-10, etc.). This information can be input into programs such as SPSS that can analyze the data and provide output based on the information collected (Kara, 2012). That is often easier to address because it is far less subjective than other types of analysis, and that leaves less room for error on the part of the researcher (Creswell, 2008). It also leaves less room for assumption and misunderstanding, both of which can lead to unethical behavior even if it is not deliberate.