Inverters could help, though their technology is not standardized. Automated demand response using smart meters with microclimate forecasting research is well funded (St. John). Building dedicated (express) feeders for larger PV systems with bidirectional voltage regulators is one response. Avoiding fixed capacitator banks and having the PV system absorb volt-ampere reactives are two other possible solutions (Katiraei and Romero Aguero 69-70). On the other hand, PV can be useful to a utility by improving the voltage profile and reducing electrical line losses (Srisaen and Sangswang 855), as well as "relieved transmission and distribution congestion, environmental impact reduction, peak shaving, and enhanced utility system reliability" (Ramakumar and Chiradeja 722-723).
PV has environmental issues. Making solar cells is an energy-intensive process, using significant amounts of water and toxic chemicals. Most good monocrystalline silicon is produced by the highly inefficient (80% waste) trichlorosilane (SiHCl3) distillation and reduction method, which involves highly toxic chemicals like hydrogen chloride in burning quartzite with coal in an electric arc furnace -- not to mention, the process itself is quite expensive. Sheer availability is an issue, when 25%-50% of semiconductor-grade monocrystalline silicon is lost to kerf. If that could be recycled, it would supply the solar cell industry twice over. In addition, wafer slicing requires immense quantities of stainless steel wire and a toxic abrasive slurry composed of silicon carbide (SiC) and a mineral-oil-based or glycol-based liquid -- which then must be cleaned off by toxic organic solvents or detergents. For etching the surface, most use hydrofluoric-nitric-acetic acid, which again is highly toxic. Most cleaning is done with hydrofluoric (HF) acid, which then creates most of the PV industry's toxic waste. Most of these processes also require high-purity deionized water -- about 30 gallons per square inch of silicon wafer (Tsuo, Gee and Menna).
Creating solar cells from the silicon wafer requires other manufacturing processes. Junction diffusion uses more energy in the form of a furnace, either tube or belt. Tube furnaces use POCl3 as a dopant, "which generates toxic P2O5 and Cl2 effluents and requires frequent cleaning of diffusion tubes using HF solutions" (Tsuo, Gee and Menna). Etching uses a chlorofluorocarbon, which contributes to global warming. Antireflection coatings use silane, which is highly flammable. Silver-tin-lead solder baths place metal electrodes, which is highly toxic. Last, but not least, chlorofluorocarbon compounds clean flux (Tsuo, Gee and Menna). All of these pose environmental problems.
Unsurprisingly, workers who manufacture these solar cells are exposed to all of these toxic chemicals, as "process engineering controls….are designed more for the protection of the product than for the protection of the worker or the environment" (Edelman 295). Higher rates of spontaneous abortions, chronic illness, cancers of the respiratory tract and skin, systemic poisoning, cataracts, renal failure are all known issues (Chen 6).
After manufacturing, other environmental issues come up. Utility-scale PV systems require some large amounts of land (Ramakumar and Chiradeja 717), and installation could interfere with sunlight and water run-off. Animals may be impacted by creating bird perches and interfering with grazing. Other issues include transmission line routes and habitats of endangered species. Of course, building a facility would affect archeological sites. Many people find the facilities ugly. If an accident occurs, hazardous materials may contaminate the area. None of these differs from conventional coal-fired power plants, however (Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Department of Energy (DOE); and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Department of the Interior (DOI)).
Many federal incentives are available for building PV systems. Corporations can take advantage of tax deductions for energy efficient buildings, accelerated depreciation schedules, energy conservation subsidies, and tax credits for investment, new home building, and renewable electricity production. Grants are available for Native American tribes, for corporate renewable energy equipment, and for rural communities for renewable energy generation. Agricultural producers and rural small businesses have...
, 2008). Objectives of Research and Investigation The primary objective of the proposed research is to develop a prototype of a bidirectional converter for use in residential grid-connected PV systems that incorporates SPMC technology. As part of this primary objective, a secondary objective is to design and implement control strategies to regulate a smooth bidirectional flow of power, controlling the system in an efficient and productive manner. Finally, in order to demonstrate
Cost and CO2 reduction analysis were performed using local data available from both commercial and professional bodies. A majority of current thermal rating programs require the equipment to be tested in accordance to a standard test under specified testing conditions. This approach provides reliable data because it is possible to replicate such tests within an accepted uncertainty band. There are, however, some rating programs which combine a standard test
The production of electricity from power plants relying on this varying resource changes considerably. On the other hand the electricity demand does not cope with such variations. (Komor, 2009) • Other forms of barriers: There are some other obstacles like allowing challenges of renewable power plants and technical hazards with regard to transmission connecting to the plant, higher proportion of capital to operating costs and policy instability. (Komor, 2009) The prime
At the present energy set-up nuclear energy provides around 20% of world's electricity. This energy is produced naturally -- by the sun and other stars making heat and light- and artificially-electricity from nuclear power plants. The nuclear power plants produce more energy using less fuel compared to the fossil fuels and hence it is seen as an environmentally friendly energy source (Ansolabehere, et al., 2003). However, the true scope
Lyndon Rive, Thank you for the opportunity to present to you and Solar City our proposal for bringing solar power to the government buildings of Trenton, New Jersey. In order to best appreciate the situation in which we find ourselves, we must undertake an explanation of why bringing solar power to the city is in everyone's best interest. This proposal, therefore, includes the reasons why solar panels are beneficial, how they
Around 21 billion of co2 is launched into the environment annually which is too much for the environment of Earth to neutralise or utilise normally. The manufacturing of co2 from burning non-renewable fuel sources is among the most considerably important contributing greenhouse gases. The boost of greenhouse gases in the environment is developing a substantial increase in worldwide temperature level which is a direct link in between non-renewable fuel
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