Effects of Sustained Silent Reading on Reluctant Middle School Aged Children

Reading is a fundamental part of a child's education. Many techniques have been utilized in an effort to make learning to read and reading comprehension easier for students (McCray 2001). One such technique is Sustained Silent Reading (SSR). The purpose of this discussion is to investigate Sustained Silent Reading as it relates to reluctant middle school aged children. Let us begin our investigation by discussing the theoretical framework of Sustained Silent Reading.

Sustained Silent Reading (SSR)

Jenson & Jenson (2002) report that The Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading program (USSR) was first implemented by Lyman Hunt at the University of Vermont during the 1960's (Jensen & Jensen 2002). By the 1970's the program was implemented into the American public school system (Jensen & Jensen 2002). Forty years after its initial inception this same program has an array of aliases including: Motivation in Middle Schools (MIMS), High Intensity Practice (HIP), Free Voluntary Reading (FVR), Positive Outcomes While Enjoying Reading (POWER), Drop Everything and Read (DEAR), however the most frequently used name is Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) (Jensen & Jensen 2002). According to Yoon (2002) Sustained Silent Reading is defined as 'in-classroom reading activity wherein students are given a fixed period of time for the silent reading of self-selected material either for pleasure or for information, has gained popularity in many elementary and secondary classrooms in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, and New Zealand ... scientific evidence regarding the effectiveness of SSR on reading attitude is equivocal. For example, a few studies have indicated that SSR promotes positive attitudes toward reading (Aranha, 1985; Dully, 1989; Wilmot, 1975). In contrast, other research results question whether SSR has a positive influence on attitude toward reading (Yoon 2002)."

In addition, Yoon (2002) reports there are three characteristics of SSR that are beneficial to students and that aid in the reading process. These characteristics are self-selection, role modeling, and non-accountability.

The author asserts that self-selection involves that theory of self-determination and argues that children will be more enthusiastic about completing reading assignments if they are given a choice and have to power to select what they read (Yoon 2002). Within the context of the Self Sustained Reading technique self selection is incorporated and affects students' responses to reading. The author asserts that in his study Rehder (1980) found that "Secondary school students involved in a popular fiction course who were allowed to choose paperback books significantly outperformed control group students who participated in a composition class. Thus, by providing opportunities for self-selection in SSR, a teacher can foster children's involvement in reading materials and promote their literacy development (Yoon 2002)."

The idea of self selection also involves the concept of self-regulation endorsed by McCombs and Marzano (1990). The authors assert that "Students' will or desire to engage in self-regulation is not only necessary, but primary. To generate the will for self-regulation, students must realize that they are creative agents, responsible for and capable of achieving self-development and self-determination goals, and they must appreciate and understand their capabilities for reaching these goals (McCombs and Marzano 1990-page 51)."

Role Modeling is also a very important aspect of the SSR technique. The author asserts that that human behavior is fashioned by imitation and observation goals (McCombs and Marzano 1990-page 51).. As it pertains to children role models tend to be parents and teachers. Therefore if children are exposed to good reading behaviors it will assist them in developing good reading habits (McCombs and Marzano 1990-page 51).. For instance a great deal of research has indicated that role modeling is essential for reading attitude attainment and improvement. For instance, "Gambrell (1981) stated that "students need to see that we value reading and that reading is important in our lives. Share with your students. What better way to show them that reading is important? (Yoon 2002)."

Hopkins (2003) also explains the importance of the teacher serving as a role model. The author asserts that whether SSR is a private time activity or used as a discussion or writing motivator, it is essential that teachers contribute to the process as role models (Hopkins 2003). The author explains that during SSR teachers should also be reading and not developing lesson plans or correcting papers (Hopkins 2003). The author asserts that

"Teachers should be right there on the floor (or in another comfortable spot) -- modeling a lifelong love of reading. If students are expected to fill out a reading log after reading, teachers should do the same. If a weekly "share time" is part of the SSR routine, the teacher can serve as a model by talking about the book he or she is reading. Teachers can model the thought processes that accompany reading by talking about how the main character changes through the course of the book, about the author's use of language, and about surprises and disappointments they encounter as they read (Hopkins 2003)."

The author also points out that there are many facets of reading that can only be obtained if students have role models (Hopkins 2003). For instance, students must also learn how to respond to books and how to discuss their thoughts about books with others (Hopkins 2003). In this sense modeling readies students to have excellent book discussion (Hopkins 2003). Modeling empowers students have good independent book discussion when they are in pairs or small groups (Hopkins 2003). The author also asserts that SSR is also a chance for teachers to model better writing habits. The author asserts that when teachers request that students record their SSR activities in a dialogue journal, the journals can offer a chance to model good writing skills (Hopkins 2003). The author asserts that

"In dialogue journals, teachers can model by spelling words correctly in their responses to students that the students had misspelled in their entries. Teachers might even ask a question that requires a response that will include the misspelled word -- a tricky way to see if modeling really works! Modeling can also be used to point out students' errors of usage and capitalization and grammar (Hopkins 2003)."

Lastly, the characteristic of non-accountability plays an important role in SSR and student learning (Yoon 2002). The author explains that during SSR sessions the students are often not required to write book reports or keep journals (Yoon 2002). Such unaccountability is beneficial because techniques that focus on high accountability have the tendency to intimidate reluctant students (Yoon 2002). A teacher explains this phenomenon saying

"reading should be a spark to ignite a fire -- heavy accountability tends to throw water on the spark. If it is graded, it defeats the purpose of reading class ... To become life-long readers" (p. 6). Schiavone's (2000) study also showed that accountability for reading did not play a crucial role on the reading comprehension and attitude of seventh-grade children. Thus, instead of imposing heavy-accountability, rather teachers should always exert all possible efforts to share his or her reading experience with children and to entice comments from them about reading out of the activity (Yoon 2002)."

Crawford (2004) asserts that giving students diverse reading materials encourages their evolution into lifelong readers. The author asserts that "providing a rich supply of reading matter to children of all ages, as well as a place and time to read, is the first step to bridging the gap between poor and good readers (Crawford 2004)." The author asserts that Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) programs facilitate the creation of a school wide environment that is conducive to students engaging in free reading during the school day. The article also reports that in The SSR Handbook (2000), Janice Pilgreen asserts that SSR provides "the same or better benefits for students in the areas of comprehension and motivation as traditional skills do (Crawford 2004)."

Marzano (2004) agrees with the aforementioned assessments of SSR and how it should be implemented. In his book Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement the author asserts that there are five main factors that contribute to the successful implementation of SSR (Marzano 2004). These factors include involving students in selecting the reading material, distinguishing topics of interest, having uninterrupted time to read, journaling or representing the information in notebooks, and interacting with others about the subject matter presented in the books that have been read (Marzano 2004).

Furthermore schools that have employed a SSR strategy report an increase in academic achievement and students who developed a love for reading (Crawford 2004). The author concluded that when SSR programs are used in collaboration with a strong school library media program, students acquire the necessary materials, encouragement, and environment to help them develop lifelong reading routines (Crawford 2004).

Now that we have a better understanding of the theoretical framework of the Sustained Silent Reading technique, let us concentrate on the SSR technique as it relates to reluctant middle school aged children.

SSR in Reluctant Middle School Aged Children

Over the past two decades there has been a decline in reading at the middle school level. According to Humphrey et al. (1997) the loss of support for reading is most noticeable at the middle grades. The authors explain that this loss of support was brought on by efforts to restructure schools by converting K-8 to elementary and middle -grade configurations. As a result, 'reading in many middle -grades schools was eliminated as a separate subject and combined with English. The result is that many middle -grades schools do not provide enough time for independent reading, skill development, and connections with libraries. Further, few middle -grades teachers are being trained in reading because reading positions no longer exist in many middle -- grade schools (Humphrey et al. 1997)."

According to Ivey and Broaddus (2001) Middle school students are quite often described as disinterested readers. However, when middle school students were interviewed about their reading habits it seemed that the reluctance to reading stemmed more from the types of books being assigned and the inability of the students to be independent (Ivey and Broaddus 2001). A survey of middle school students also found that students only liked to read things that they were interested in and that they were more likely to read something if they can choose what they read (Ivey and Broaddus 2001). The authors point out students in middle school need to have a sense of independence as it relates to reading. This is consistent with the idea of self selection that is present when using the SSR technique.

Ivey and Broaddus (2001) also assert that there are three themes that are associated with reluctance in reading as it relates to middle school students. These three themes are as follows

The inability of most reading plans to take into consideration the personal and developmental variations amongst students. For instance, "case studies of three students in the same sixth-grade class highlighted not only the variation between them, but also the complexities within each of the three, calling for alternatives to one-size-fits-all instruction and for reading and writing experiences that showcase and capitalize on students' strengths rather than assignments that emphasize their weaknesses (Ivey & Broaddus 2001-page 350)." The authors point out that this type of curriculum is usually not available in schools but may be necessary for reluctant readers that have difficulty reading (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). In addition the authors assert that competent readers who are also reluctant benefit from a reading plan that provides them with adequate time and access to materials that are personally interesting (Ivey & Broaddus 2001).

The second theme is that there is often a disconnect between what students desire to learn about and the requirement at a given school especially if the curriculum of the school is governed by state or district standards (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). Although many have vocalized these concerns the curriculum should be more relevant as it relates to middle school aged students, there are subject area loyalties that still exist (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). As such, the challenges that students face are complicated by subject matter that they are not interested in (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). For instance in their study "O'Brien, Stewart, and Moje (1995) argued how attempts to integrate content literacy in secondary schools have done little to alleviate this problem. They contended that the goals of content literacy have been confused in research, in teacher education, and in schools. Some approaches to content literacy, particularly content-area reading strategies, support traditional goals of schools, that is, learning specific content (Ivey & Broaddus 2001)." Nevertheless, O'Brien et al. discovered that student-controlled learning isn't usually congruent with traditional school and is difficult for both students and teachers to adapt to (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). Furthermore the secondary teachers differ in their beliefs and practices and have the tendency to turn to more teacher-centered instruction, particularly when they recognize that it is necessary to teach specific content (Ivey & Broaddus 2001).

The last theme involves middle school students that are not able to merge school reading with their out-of- school reading (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). With this being the case middle school students that are reluctant to readers may read persistently and deliberately outside of school materials they find interesting (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). Additionally, the students' motives for reading out of school may be different from their motives for reading in school (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). For instance, for some adolescence reading in school is motivated by the accomplishment of academic tasks (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). On the contrary out-of- school reading is motivated by personal and socially oriented activities in which student could explore a range of new roles and identities (Ivey & Broaddus 2001). In addition, the in school reading was based on traditional texts, but their out-of- school reading involved a variety of media and technology (Ivey & Broaddus 2001).

Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) is a technique that addresses many of the aforementioned problems associated with reluctant middle school students. The main factor in the SSR technique is the ability of the students to choose what they read, which seems to be an effective way of getting reluctant readers in the habit of reading. According to Broaddus & Worthy (2001) incorporating free choice reading and giving feedback to students in a classroom reading plan is beneficial to reluctant readers. The article points out that 'One common classroom practice that promotes independent reading is sustained, free-choice reading (Manning & Manning, 1984; Sadoski, 1984), in which students read texts of their choice for a given time. This practice is often called DEAR (drop everything and read) or SSR (sustained silent reading). While some educators recommend that teachers also read during this time, leaving students to read independently without guidance, we suggest that teachers use this time to assess and provide appropriate instruction, as they would during guided reading fluency practice (Broaddus & Worthy 2001)."

According to an article found in Journal of Adolescent & Adult reluctant readers often come to school with few pleasant reading experiences to draw from (Williams 2001). In fact Williams (2001) asserts that the majority of reluctant readers can not recall reading with a parent as a young child, and some who can recall doing so remember it as an experience that was used at bed time to get them to go to sleep (Williams 2001). For these reluctant readers SSR can be an effective technique if it is correctly implemented.

The article discusses the effect of reading aloud and SSR as it related to a workshop involving a middle school. The author explains that the middle school in question is located in a middle-class suburb of a large Midwestern city in the United States. Most of the students are from working-class homes. In addition the middle school is predominant composed of white student and small percentages of students who are Hispanic, African-American, and Asian/Pacific Islander (Williams 2001). For the majority of the students English is their first language but the number of students who speak English as a second language increases every year (Williams 2001). Students were selected for the reading assistance program (workshop) based on several criteria. The author explains that these criteria included a review of Illinois Standards Achievement Test scores, standardized test scores, and grades in reading and the content areas, along with teacher comments and concerns (Williams 2001). Students who had comprehension test scores that fell below the 30th percentile or who scored below the standards on the state assessment test received high priority (Williams 2001). In addition, some of the incoming sixth graders who have worked with the reading specialist during elementary school are also considered (Williams 2001).

In the workshop of troubled and reluctant readers the researcher incorporated silent in-class reading time and self-selection. During this time both the students and the instructor would read. The author insists that

"One of the best ways to get students to read is to give them time in school to do it. Ross (1996) said that if we think reading is important and want our students to see its importance as well, then we must allow students time in school to read. These are the students who frequently go home from school each day empty handed. Sometimes, even if books are taken home, reading outside of school is not a priority. Often, students say that homework in other classes or family demands and concerns prevent them from reading at home. For some, it is difficult to even recognize that reading apart from school has value (Williams 2001)."

The author further explains that many of the students make a conscious choice not to read (Williams 2001). This is because they tend to associate no aesthetic enjoyment with reading because they do not recall reading with a parent or guardian (Williams 2001). Therefore, for the reluctant reader, reading is viewed as just another school chore (Williams 2001). In addition, in school reading is important because it gives students 10 to 15 minutes a day that they dedicate to reading which they might not have otherwise (Williams 2001).

Williams (2001) asserts that there is a concerted effort to ensure that students are comfortable during the sustained silent reading sessions. The author explains that the students are allowed to lie down or sit down wherever they choose and the room also contains stuffed animals and carpeting in an effort to make the room cozy (Williams 2001). The researcher points out that

"Matthewson (1985) recommended placing students in a "pleasant physical location in order to change attitudes toward reading" (pp. 854-855). Like Matthewson, I believe that a pleasant physical environment goes a long way in helping students see reading as an enjoyable activity. With soft music playing in the background, students quickly settle down to read and can often be observed looking at the book instead of the clock (Williams 2001)."

Although the implementation of a Sustained Silent reading program can be beneficial to reluctant and struggling readers, silent reading can also be difficult for students that have these classifications (Williams 2001). The author asserts that these students can sometimes have a difficult time concentrating for long periods of time (Williams 2001). In addition 15 or 20 minutes of silent reading may seem lie a long time if a student is not motivated or distracted (Williams 2001). The student may have the tendency to squirm in their seats, pay close attention to the clock or attempt to talk to other students during SSR (Williams 2001). The researcher asserts that when looking up from reading students are often looking back and they are not actively engaged in reading the book (Williams 2001). As a result, teachers of reluctant readers must teach the students how to read silently, and what silent reading looks like and sounds like (Williams 2001). In addition students must understand that during SSR that should have an abundant amount of material to read (Williams 2001). For instance, if a student is about to complete a book they should have another one handy and it should also be brought to class (Williams 2001). Teachers should instruct students to concentrate or reading and not stopping which is more likely to happen of they have selected something that is interesting to read (Williams 2001). In addition the students should be taught to read as much as they can in the time they are afforded (Williams 2001). Lastly students should not sit next to other students that they know will cause a distraction (Williams 2001).

The researcher further asserts that using humor to explain these things to students is usually. The researcher reports that 'With good-natured humor, I show students what I see when students daydream, tap pencils, or move around uncomfortably in their seats instead of using their time to read. Students learn early on that doing homework, studying for a test in another class, cleaning out folders, and making multiple trips to the tissue box do not count as silent reading. More powerful than simply telling students how to read silently is my modeling of the behavior I strive to encourage in them. Reading with my students demonstrates appropriate behavior as well as credibility for the practice of silent reading. It takes some students several weeks to become acclimated to silent reading, but most eventually learn to make good use of their silent reading time (Williams 2001).

The author further states that SSR Is important for reluctant readers because they have the tendency to select books for SSR they would not read in a regular classroom setting (Williams 2001). In doing this the students become capable of selecting books at their independent and instructional reading level (Williams 2001). However educators must understand that giving the students the ability to select their own books may mean that some students will reread books or choose lower level books to read (Williams 2001). Although some students choose a variety of genres, from novels to comic books, many do not. For instance, "In Beers's (1998) interviews, she found that uncommitted, unmotivated, and unskilled readers prefer texts with pictures, like magazines and comic books. Like Beers, I discovered that struggling readers become overwhelmed with the amount of choices available to them in the library. My classroom library is considerably smaller. Three or four shelves of books narrow the field somewhat, and students appear to experience fewer problems finding a book they are comfortable reading (Williams 2001)."

In this particular instance the SSR strategy was successful in aiding reluctant readers because it was properly implemented. The results of the workshop illustrate that it is imperative that educators understand the importance of role modeling so that students can see how fun reading can be. In addition, teachers must also be patient when implementing a SSR strategy because it may take some considerable time for students to adjust to such a program. When all of these factors are taken into consideration SSR can be a beneficial program for reluctant reader and avid readers.

Although many have found that SSR is an effective technique for reluctant readers in some cases SSR has not been effective. For instance a study conducted in New Zealand by Maguiness (1999) found that SSR did not have a positive effect on reluctant readers. The author explains that the study involved a sample of students who always read, sometimes read and never read during SSR (Maguiness 1999). The author asserts that this sample was chosen in order to provide comparisons between readers, those who could and did, and reluctant readers, those who could read but chose not to read (Maguiness 1999). In addition, some of the sample students interviewed were in classes where SSR functioned successfully while others came from classes where teachers were having difficulty keeping the routines (Maguiness 1999).

Amongst the sample students constraints and reading behaviors were summarized for each participant and they were then identified as a reader or a reluctant reader. When the feedback sessions were conducted students were presented with the issues that either encouraged them to read or stopped them from reading (Maguiness 1999). They were then asked to define these issues as it related to the PBM methodology (Maguiness 1999). The researcher hypothesized that the "students' lack of commitment to reading to stem from a lack of understanding of the importance of reading. I surmised that students had not been "sold" the concept of SSR sufficiently. This hypothesis was not supported by the data. Only one student was unable to explain what SSR was. Their theories about the school's practice included reasoning about the relationship of reading to learning (Maguiness 1999)."

Within the sample group there were three students that were characterized as readers. There were five practices that were thematic with these students including:

1. reading for longer than ten minutes during SSR (Maguiness 1999)

2. bringing their own books to read (Maguiness 1999)

3. At home reading of books (Maguiness 1999)

4. sidetracked by noise (Maguiness 1999)

5. asserted that teacher modeling had no effect (Maguiness 1999)

In addition the researcher found that the readers in the sample group were extremely focused on the content of the books being read. The readers also seemed confident that they had chosen the books that they preferred and believed that the behavior of the teacher did not affect their behavior. In addition the researcher found that all three students were intrinsically motivated. In other worlds they were will to participate in an activity even if it had no external value for others. The researcher also found that the readers often loss track of time during SSR because they became enamored by the content in the books that they were reading. The readers also seemed to be very independent students. Their attitudes toward reading were reflective of "Robyn Caygill's analysis of student responses to the 1990-91 IEA survey which found that "students who were good readers thought ... ( what ) could be considered personal attributes made them a good reader These three intrinsically motivated students showed coherence with their practice, their beliefs and their theories about the school practice (Maguiness 1999)."

The readers also presented their opinions as to why the reluctant readers behaved the way that they did. The students argued that, "To encourage people to read by basically putting them under forced conditions but I don't think that works 'cause people who don't really want to read just don't read ... It all really depends on the person. If they don't like reading then you can't really get them to read...you can't make someone read (Maguiness 1999)."

Within the sample the researcher found that there were eight reluctant readers. These readers were labeled as reluctant because of the 20 minutes of SSR the spent less than ten minutes reading (Maguiness 1999). There were four attributes related to the reluctant readers including

1. Not bringing a book to SSR (Maguiness 1999)

2. Reliant on the classroom to supply reading material (Maguiness 1999)

3. Overvalued time spent on out of school reading (Maguiness 1999)

4. Were uncertain about role modeling presented by the teacher (Maguiness 1999)

Of the eight reluctant readers four of them were above average readers according to their PAT scores, two were average readers and one was a below average reader (Maguiness 1999). The were also divided evenly by gender; four of the reluctant readers were female and four were male. These were the students for which SSR was created but was not beneficial (Maguiness 1999). According to the students there were three reasons for their reluctance to read. These three factors included; the classroom environment including noise and uncomfortable surroundings; reading materials that were not appropriate and hyperactivity (Maguiness 1999). In feedback interviews the researcher inquired about what could be done to take away their reluctance to read. The students asserted that they needed the SSR teacher to take a more active role in facilitating the class and to enforce discipline (Maguiness 1999). The students argued that they needed more information about books and they also wanted some overall help from the teacher. The researcher concluded that the reluctant readers in the sample were more likely to concentrate on the external locus of control. In addition the reluctant reading students were seemingly dependent upon the school facilities (Maguiness 1999). As such they were not capable of fulfilling the model of SSR in which the locus of control is on the student (Maguiness 1999). The researcher also concluded that the students were expressing a need for what Sweet, Ng and Guthrie ( 1998 ) express as a sense of "relatedness." The research also found that