Psychodynamic Theory, Learning Theory, and Social Exchange

¶ … Psychodynamic Theory, Learning Theory, and Social Exchange Theory in Group Settings

Some groups seem to hit it off right from the start and achieve their goals in good order, while other groups tend to become mired in personality conflicts and infighting to the extent that nothing is ever achieved. To determine the differences, this paper provides a review of the relevant literature concerning three different types of theories, psychodynamic theory, learning theory, and social exchange theory, and how they operate in various group settings. A discussion concerning the background and author of each theory is followed by an examination of how each theory it typically used today, and what kind of group would likely use these theoretical approaches. Finally, a summary of the research concerning using psychodynamic theory, learning theory, and social exchange theory in group and important findings are presented in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

Psychodynamic Theory

Founded by Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century, psychodynamic theory has been used to explore emotion at work (Vince, 2004). According to Vince, "One aspect of psychodynamic theory that is particularly important to understanding emotion and organizations [is the] idea that learning and change are inevitably associated with anxiety. At both a conscious and an unconscious level, the management of learning is the management of anxiety and of resistance arising from the anxiety" (p. 44). This finding suggests that the role of group leader "involves an emotional connection to the anxiety arising from the nature of work" (Vince, 2004, p. 44). In other words, an insightful group leader could use psychodynamic theory to develop a rapport with other group members based on shared negative experiences in the organization or by highlighting what has worked best in the past in similar situations (Vince, 2004). Likewise, Lanza (1998) reports that psychodynamic theory can be drawn on to observe group and to "articulate conscious and unconscious themes from the intrapsychic, interpersonal, and 'group as a whole' perspective" (p. 28). In addition, all group members can use psychodynamic theory as a framework for interpreting member interests and abilities (Osipow & Walsh, 1999).

Learning Theory

A great deal of current adult learning theory draws on the organizational development field, with learning theory being used as a way of providing group members with the tools they need to perform the jobs better in the workplace (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011). The origins of learning theory, though, date to the 1950s and 1960s when organizational development theorists and educationists determined that traditional methods of higher education did not always provide graduates with the tools they needed to perform well in the workplace and the different training environments that were encountered (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011). According to Kenner and Weinerman (2011), organizational development practitioners used the term andragogy based on Knowles (1974) earlier work that "recognized the needs and features of this distinct learning population and to separate adult learning theory from traditional pedagogy" (p. 88). Drawing on organizational development theory, Knowles (1984) subsequently identified four principles that characterize adult learners:

1. They are self-directed, take responsibility for their own actions, and resist having information arbitrarily imposed on them.

2. They have an extensive depth of experience, which serves as a critical component in the foundation of their self-identity.

3. They are ready to learn. As most adult learners return to college voluntarily, they are likely to actively engage in the learning process.

4. They are task motivated. Adult students returning to college attend for a specific goal and the primary component of their motivational drive tends to be internal.

These aspects of learning theory provide valuable insights into how and why adults best learn in the workplace, including group members assigned new tasks (Kenner & Wienerman, 2011).

Social Exchange Theory

Propounded by Homans (1961), social exchange theory is based on the notion that, "Social exchange occurs when one is attracted to another in expectation of reward due to that association. Individuals' social exchanges are anchored in self-interest and characterized by interdependency, the terms of which may be defined by psychological contract" (Turnipseed & Wilson, 2009, p. 201). These types of dyadic exchanges typically involve some type of reward that allows group members to work better (Turnipseed & Wilson, 2009). Social exchange theory has been used by human resource practitioners to improve employee performance, enhance productivity in the workplace, improve service quality, improve employee job satisfaction, reduce absenteeism as well as overall turnover rates (Sheng & Tian, 2010). According to Sheng and Tian (2010), "Not all groups are successful, though, because arrangements of the individuals' cooperation in the work may not be satisfactory and the members should be allowed to select other group members" (p. 1298).

Discussion

Psychodynamic theory can be used by a group leader as well as all group members to help them better understand the group dynamics that are facilitating teamwork or hindering it; group members can also use psychodynamic theory to step back and develop a more nuanced and objective perspective of the group so that what is really taking place can be discerned rather than trying to force everyone's actions into a theoretical pigeonhole. Likewise, learning theory can be drawn on to better understand why people behave the way they do in working learning situations, and social exchange theory is readily applied to group situations where It is also important to note that many groups will be comprised of members from different background and cultures, making the need for cross-cultural understanding and appreciation an ongoing requirement for effective group functioning (Henslin, 2013).