Validity
When conducting a research study, the researcher needs to pay particular attention to the reliability and validity of his or her research instruments. These concepts form the basis of the academic acceptability and even excellence in a study. Hence, any researcher should be concerned with maximizing especially the validity of his or her work. In addition to internal consistency, various forms of validity can be identified, including face validity, content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity. All these validity forms form an important component of ensuring the strength of a research project.

Internal consistency refers to the homogeneity of a measure. When a questionnaire is offered to sports apparel customers in one of the countries (United States or Kenya) represented in the study, for example, it should be ensured that all the questions would produce valid scores for specific populations. This can be done by comparing half the items of a…...

Finally, internal consistency reliability looks at items in the same test, to see if they measure the same construct in the same way (Cherry, 2011, eliability). However, all of these measures of reliability are useless if a test does not measure what it purports to measure.
Validity looks at whether a test measures what it claims to measure. Only valid tests can be used to be accurately applied or interpreted (Cherry, 2011, Validity). There are three different types of validity: content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. Content validity means that "the items on the test represent the entire range of possible items the test should cover" (Cherry, 2011, Validity). Criterion-related validity means that the test can predict criterion or indicators of a construct. Concurrent validity means that the "test scores accurately estimate an individual's current state with regards to the criterion" (Cherry, 2011, Validity). Predictive validity means that a…...

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References

Cherry, K. (2011). What is reliability? Retrieved February 22, 2011 from About.com website:

 http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/reliabilitydef.htm 

Cherry, K. (2011). What is validity? Retrieved February 22, 2011 from About.com website:

 http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm

This may occur when populations show wide variations in their responses to particular hypotheses, which are in violation of the expected response.
Construct validity may be compromised when alternative correspondences are achieved between a construct and an unexpected concept found within the actual environment being studied. In other words, when the construct does not correspond with the original hypothesis, its validity would be compromised.

In cloud computing and determining inside threats, various elements may need to be taken into account before taking action. One potential compromise to such an investigation might be the lack of validity when estimating potential threats. In other words, insider threats might be considered higher among employees who are knowledgeable in computer technology and spend more time at the company than other employees. However, such employees can be to the detriment of a full investigation, which might reveal a threat from another source, which might be unexpected.

Another…...

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References

Reliability and Validity (2012). Retrieved from: http://mailer.fsu.edu/~slosh/MethodsGuide3.html

Shackleford, D. (2012, Apr.). Countering cloud computing threats: Malicious insiders. Retreived from:  http://searchcloudsecurity.techtarget.com/tip/Countering-cloud-computing-threats-Malicious-insiders

Validity and Reliability
Types of Validity

According to Trochim (2007), there are six different types of construct validity. Construct validity pertains to the accurate reflection of the operationalization's construct within the conclusion. Of the six types, Trochim (2007) divides them up to translation validity -- which depends on the definition of the construct and the checks against it -- and criterion-related validity -- which applies one's theory of construct and examines the proper behavior of the operationalization. The two translation validity types are thus: face validity, which views an operationalization solely on its face value; and content validity, which juxtaposes operationalization with the content domain of the construct. The four criterion-related validity types are thus: predictive validity, which uses prediction to evaluate operationalization; concurrent validity, where operationalization is gauged in its being able to distinguish between two similar groups; convergent validity, a gauging of how similar an operationalization is to other operationalizations;…...

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Work Cited

Trochim, William M.K., and James P. Donnelly, (2007). Research Methods Knolwedge Base. Mason, OH: Thomson Custom Pub. Print.

Techniques for testing reliability, on the other hand, can be achieved through the test-retest, alternative-forms, and internal consistency methods. Test-retest method administers an instrument to the same population in two different periods/occasions, and the difference between the scores of the first and second administration determines the reliability of the construct under study. Alternative-forms is similar to test-retest method; only, the flow of the instrument in the second administration is reversed, and the difference of the results of the 1st and 2nd tests determines the instrument's reliability score. Lastly, the internal consistency method looks at the construct's consistency when the instrument is tested itself -- that is, if the instrument will be deconstructed, would it still generate reliability scores at par or higher than the scores generated from other test/techniques? (Smith, 1988:46-47).
Under the qualitative research design, reliability and validity are determined differently. Ultimately, data validity and reliability in qualitative researches…...

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References

Golafshani, N. (2003). "Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research." The Qualitative Report, Vol. 8, No. 4.

Smith, M.J. (1988). Contemporary Communication Research Methods. CA: Wadsworth.

Validity Coefficient
It is important to consider several important factors when interpreting the meaning of a validity coefficient, especially as it applies to various practical situations. For example, a relatively low validity coefficient might be alright in certain situations. If a branch of the armed forces needed to recruit large numbers of new members in a short period of time, it would be flexible in interpreting the meaning of a particular study's validity coefficient. On the other hand, situations might demand a narrow interpretation of the validity coefficient. Using a similar example, if individuals were being screened for entry into a specialized division of the secret services, the factors related to the validity coefficient would be far more meaningful. The factors that impact the validity coefficient are generally related to the cost-benefit ratio.

The above examples of military recruitment illustrate the various factors affecting the validity coefficient. In situations in which large…...

Presumably, the reliability of the responses between a monitored study and an unmonitored study could be validated by consistent reportage from the peer and the incumbent. This method was also used to control for the study's overall validity: the study would be a more valid measure of counterproductive work actions and their relationship to work stressors if an outside source validated the incumbent's responses.
The study's authors still acknowledge a contradiction: self-reports may be inaccurate or self-serving, yet peer reports may overemphasize the importance of publically observed stressors. Interpersonal conflict is easier to recognize than daydreaming or covert productivity slowdowns, for example. But by soliciting peers and self-reported surveys and classifying different types of stressors, the study's authors hoped to control for such a bias through diversity of responses. Additionally, to reduce fear of reprisals, the surveys were submitted in a completely anonymous fashion, to ensure greater reliability between the…...

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Works Cited

Fox, S. & Spector, P.E. (2007). Does your coworker know what you're doing? Convergence of self- and peer-reports of counterproductive work behavior. International Journal of Stress Management, 14(1), 41-60.

Validity
The problem discussed in the case is whether or not the government should manage health care in the United States. The authors identify several problems with the current health care system, including costs that are rising faster than inflation, that health care coverage costs are rising even faster than that, and there are millions of uninsured. The problem can be tackled by using any of a number of logical approaches. Arguably, none of them were used by the articles, whose arguments would not cut muster at a decent high school, let alone in a journal.

Causal thinking seeks to understand the causes of the problem, as a means of identifying the areas where remedy should be applied. There are several causes of the problems. Costs are escalating in part because of innovation, which drives higher quality but also makes costs increase. Insurance companies also contribute to the cost, because of profit-taking.…...

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References

Chen, K.. & Chuang, K. (2013). Using systems thinking to analyze health care in the United States: Should we move to a government-sponsored health care system? Academy of Health Care Management Journal. Vol. 9 (2) 3-12.

Validity of the ACSM prediction equation to estimate submaximal
O2 during cycle ergometry in cyclists and aerobically-trained non-cyclists

Several methods have been developed to estimate oxygen consumption (

O2) during exercise. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) developed equations to predict the energy cost of various activities, including walking, running, and arm and cycle ergometry. The ACSM cycle ergometery equation uses pedal frequency (rpm), distance of flywheel travel (meters), applied resistance to the flywheel (kp), and an estimation of the resting metabolism to predict oxygen cost during submaximal cycle exercise between 50 and 200 watts (W). This equation appears as:

O2 = (kg•m•min-1 x 2 ml•kg•m-1) + (3.5 kg•m•min-1 x M)

where

O2 is in ml•min-1 and M. is the subject's body mass in kg (Franklin, 2000).

The variability in direct

O2 measures has been shown to have a standard error of the estimate of up to 7%; the variability when using the prediction model is even…...

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References

Anton-Kuchly, B., Roger, P., & Varene, P. (1984). Determinants of increased energy cost of submaximal exercise in obese subjects. J Appl Physiol, 56(1), 18-23.

Berry, M.J., Storsteen, J.A., & Woodard, C.M. (1993). Effects of body mass on exercise efficiency and VO2 during steady-state cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 25(9), 1031-1037.

Chavarren, J., & Calbet, J.A. (1999). Cycling efficiency and pedalling frequency in road cyclists. Eur J. Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 80(6), 555-563.

Coast, J.R., Cox, R.H., & Welch, H.G. (1986). Optimal pedalling rate in prolonged bouts of cycle ergometry. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 18(2), 225-230.

Validity of Accountability Systems
Susan Fuhrman's policy brief entitled "Redesigning Accountability Systems for Education" investigates the effectiveness of existing educational accountability systems, and proposes changes to them for greater effectiveness. Educational accountability systems for American public schools need to be reworked in light of the growing numbers of minority students and awareness that the current system may be discriminatory. Accountability is, however, totally relevant and necessary given the low performance of most schools. The author states that accountability systems work on the principle that student performance is the top priority of all schools and that assessment instruments are one of the most effective means to measure student performance. Moreover, placing accountability systems in public schools promotes better performance because they work on a reward-consequence basis.

Fuhrman's article is balanced and objective, as the author analyses the validity and fairness of existing accountability systems and questions whether or not they are beneficial for…...

Validity & eliability eview
The author of this report has been asked to find and select an article with a specific purpose in mind. Namely, the author of the report is supposed to review the article for implications regarding validity and reliability. To be more precise, if there are gaps in either, the author of this report is to identify them and then identify what could be done to avoid such issues in future or different studies. A recent study about feedback interactions revealed some gaps that could be threats to reliability or validity.

To begin to evaluate the validity and reliability of the selected peer-reviewed journal, the author of this report shall first zone in on the sampling. As noted in the applicable section, the authors note "our overriding sampling logic was to find contexts that had shown a history of successfully using feedback in creative work, enabling us to see…...

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References

Harrison, S.H. & Rouse E.D. (2015). An inductive study of feedback interactions over the course of creative projects. Academy of Management Journal, 58(2),

375-404. doi:10.5465/amj.2012.0737

Instead of pretending that racism and its effects no longer exist, we need to strengthen affirmative action and devise a new set of policies that directly tackle the racial gap in wealth." (Derrity, 1).
That, in a nutshell, is the position of this paper. America has not given affirmative action enough time to act. Moving forward, we should continue our affirmative action policies, but with an end in mind. Economists and sociologists, along with help from America's captains of industry and human resources experts, should devise an ideal time frame whereby affirmative action will end, and set outside and inside goals for this time frame as well.

But for now, affirmative action must continue, and continue with gusto, to reverse the horrors that America's history has caused.

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW of RELATED LITERATURE

History of Affirmative Action review of the history associated with affirmative action is the first step to understanding where the…...

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Gratz v Bollinger, No. 02-516, U.S. Supreme Court. (2003)

Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306. (2003)

Fordyce v Seattle, 55 F. 3d 436.

Validity
The types of reliability used consist of test-retest reliability and internal consistency where the types of validity that were used are construct validity and criterion validity (vmiman). The test-retest reliability is an assessment of the similarity of scores on a particular scale over two or more test occasions. The Pearson correlation coefficients are used to quantify the similarity between the scale scores over two or more occasions. Stability coefficients provide an important indicator of a test's likely usefulness of measurement.

Internal consistency is known as scale homogeneity and is an assessment of the ability of the items in a scale to measure the same construct or trait. A parameter can be computed that indexes how well the items in a scale contribute to the overall measurement. A scale is internally consistent if all the constituent item responses are positively associated with their scale score. The most common is Cronbach's Alpha.…...

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Bibliography vmiman. (n.d.). Values and Motives Questionnaire: The Technical Manual. Retrieved from Psytech: http://www.psytech.co.uk/downloads/manuals/vmiman.pdf

It is also possible that voters could change their attitudes after having completed the questionnaire. This could affect the validity of the results for the experimental group. To handle this eventuality, several questionnaires can be delivered over time for the whole group before the experimental group is selected. A mean can then be determined to most accurately divide the group into a similar experimental and control group.

After the experimental group is determined, negative advertisements can be displayed. In order increase the validity of this experiment, a number of survey questionnaires over time can also be delivered in order to minimize non-visible influences such as an extreme reaction to a particular person in a particular advertisement. At the same time, the same number of questionnaires can be delivered to the control group.

A mean of all the questionnaires over the determined time can then provide relatively accurate data regarding whether voters are…...

p.). For the classroom teacher, an instrument with validity will satisfy these parameters.
Content-Based Assessments

1) What evidence should be provided that learners have mastered content?

When teachers give content-based assessments, they are measuring how much information students have retained from lectures, discussions, readings and other learning experiences (e.g., homework, projects). In creating a content-based assessment, the teacher must look at all the learning materials and experiences that have taken place during the unit or course of study. The questions that are asked must accurately reflect this content so mastery can be assessed. Teachers have to ask the right questions to give students an opportunity to give the right answers.

2) How would an instructor determine whether a content-based assessment reflects learner knowledge?

Instructors must design test instruments that allow students to demonstrate their content knowledge and also put that knowledge into practice. It is not enough for students to remember facts; they must be…...

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References

Culture and assessment: Discovering what students really know. (2011). Education Digest 76

(8), pp. 43-46.

Day, H.L., & Matthews, D.M. (2008). Do large-scale exams adequately assess inquiry?

American Biology Teacher 70 (6), pp. 336-341.

One of the biggest differences between African philosophy and sociology and Western and Eastern philosophies and social structures is the role that religion, individuals, and the community play.  While many Western and Eastern philosophical forces are focused on external elements and often feature a monotheistic God, African philosophy is more focused on the concept of a vital force which is not only the force of life for the individual but also for the rest of the world.   This is a fairly consistent concept across central and southern Africa, though it becomes less....

Sure! Here is a suggested topic for an IBDP Extended Essay in Physics:

Title: Investigating the Efficiency of Renewable Energy Sources: Comparing Solar Panels and Wind Turbines

Abstract: This extended essay aims to investigate the efficiency of two prominent renewable energy sources, namely solar panels and wind turbines. The project will involve a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing the efficiency of each energy source, including geographical location, weather conditions, and technological advancements. Data will be collected through simulations, experiments, and case studies of existing installations. The findings will contribute to understanding the potential of solar panels and wind turbines as reliable....

**Literary Analysis and Criticism**

* **Compare and contrast the literary techniques and themes employed by two or more authors in their works.**
* **Analyze the structure, language, and symbolism in a literary work to uncover its deeper meanings.**
* **Examine the historical and cultural context that influenced the creation and reception of a literary text.**
* **Explore the psychoanalytic or feminist perspectives on a literary work and discuss their implications.**
* **Evaluate the significance and lasting impact of a particular literary movement or genre.**

**Rhetorical Analysis and Argument**

* **Analyze the persuasive techniques used in a speech, essay, or other persuasive text.**
* **Evaluate the logical reasoning and....

When formulating a thesis statement for a paper on difficulties in hands-on or practical subjects, it is important to clearly identify the main challenges faced by students in these subjects and provide a roadmap for investigating or addressing these challenges. Here are some tips for crafting a strong thesis statement:

1. Start by clearly defining the scope of your paper and identifying the specific hands-on or practical subjects you will be focusing on. This will help you narrow down your research and ensure that your thesis statement is concise and focused.

2. Identify the key difficulties or challenges faced by students in....