ruman Doctrine: An Overview
Dr. insley

he ruman Doctrine was the first, formal statement by a U.S. president that America would intervene in the affairs of the world in a formal and consistent manner. It was the death knell of American isolationism and was an open acknowledgement of America's position as a world power willing to take aggressive action in international affairs. ruman unambiguously characterized the Soviet Union as evil, casting America's commitment to aid the Greek government against communist insurgents in a moral light (Coffey, 1984, p. 233).

In a speech to a joint session of Congress in 1947 in which he outlined the doctrine, ruman stated: "One of the primary objectives of the foreign policy of the United States is the creation of conditions in which we and other nations will be able to work out a way of life free from coercion. his was a fundamental issue in the war…...

mla

Truman's speech marked a major break with how the U.S. had traditionally responded to its involvement in international conflicts. "All who participated in the extraordinary developments of the period were aware that a major turning in American history was taking place. After past wars, the United States had withdrawn at least temporarily, into an isolationist mood and policy (Kernell, 1976, p.20). It also marked a major development in the history of Truman's presidency. Truman initially had continued with Roosevelt's conciliatory attitude towards the Soviet Union, but after the Potsdam Conference his attitude experienced a marked shift (Coffey, 1984, p. 236).

The initial response to the speech was mixed. Although, at the time, there was rousing applause in Congress, Republican isolationists were reluctant to endorse Truman's views. Truman had demanded that the speech be unequivocal in its opposition to the Soviet Union, despite pressure from some of his advisors to make it more specific to the situation in Greece and less internationalist in scope (Kernell, 1976, p. 24). Leftist critics of the Truman Doctrine believed that by "abandoning Roosevelt's policy of accommodation for the aggressive pursuit of liberal-capitalist interests" Truman scared a cautious and conservative Soviet Union concerned only with its legitimate security interests" (Coffey, 1984, p. 232). They argued that it "heightened public fears" and "contributed to a parochial, self-righteous nationalism" (Kernell, 1976, p. 24).

However, it is important not to transpose contemporary debates onto the climate in which Truman gave his speech. Today, support for military aid is often seen as a 'conservative' position, partially because of the fears amongst liberals of overseas engagement. This reluctance to support 'freedom fighters', can be linked to the failures of the Vietnam War. In Truman's time, isolationism was largely associated with the Republican Party. In contrast, moderately liberal intellectuals supported what they saw as the Greek cause of

Truman Doctrine
The first episode that led to the development of what came to be known as the Truman Doctrine occurred in 1947, when Truman asked Congress to provide monetary aid to Greece and Turkey to support their fight against encroaching Communist elements (Spalding 2006; Murrin et al. 2008). Truman's justification for this, and the concept that became his eponymous Doctrine, was that any free people should be supported in their resistance to "armed minorities" from within their own nation or pressures (monetary and military) exerted by outside forces (Murrin et al. 2008; UDDOS 2011). In this particular instance, Great Britain had been supporting Turkey against the Soviet Union and Greece against insurrection, but informed the United States that they would not be able to continue providing this support (USDOS 2011). The Truman Doctrine was developed in order to contain Communism by helping non-Communist nations to resist being oppressed and controlled…...

mla

References

Gregorsky, F. (1992). Containment's Architect. Accessed 31 July 2011.  http://www.exactingeditor.com/HarryTruman.pdf 

Murrin, J.; Johnson, P. & McPherson, J. (2008). Liberty, Equality, Power. Boston: Thomson.

Spalding, E. (2006). The First Cold Warrior. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky.

USDOS. (2011). Containment. Accessed 31 July 2011.  http://countrystudies.us/united-states/history-110.htm

Truman Doctrine
Just 2 years after the end of World War II, President Harry S. Truman delivered a speech to the U.S. Congress concerning the need to contain the spread of Soviet Union-sponsored communism which, with various refinements, would become the cornerstone of American foreign policy for the next 4 decades (Trainor, 1998). To determine its overarching impact, this paper reviews the relevant literature in order to provide an identification of the author of the Truman Doctrine, why it is important in relation to the larger themes of the Cold War era. Finally, a summary of the research and important findings concerning the Truman Doctrine are presented in the conclusion.

In a speech entitled, "Special Message to the Congress on Greece and Turkey" delivered on March 12, 1947 to a joint session of Congress, President Harry S. Truman proclaimed that the foreign policy of the United States would be focused on the…...

mla

References

Anderson, A. (2010, April). Give 'em hell, Harry: The guts and glory of Harry S. Truman. Success, 82-83.

Casey, S. (2016, January 1). When Congress gets mad. Foreign Affairs, 95(1), 76-79.

Foner, E. (2010). Voices of freedom. New York. W. W. Norton & Co.

Merrill, D. (2006, March). The Truman Doctrine: Containing communism and modernity. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36(1), 27-31.

consequences of the Truman Doctrine and how it affected other areas of American history. President Harry S. Truman unveiled the Truman Doctrine on March 12, 1947, after the end of World War , in a speech he gave to Congress. t was a doctrine dedicated to supporting democracy and fighting communism around the world, because Truman felt America had an obligation to others as a leader of the free world. He also believed communism was a real threat and he wanted to make sure that it did not spread outside Europe. The Truman Doctrine had completely good intentions, but experts believe it helped lead to the Cold War and draw up a wall between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted for decades.
n the short-term, many positive aspects of the Truman Doctrine began to be felt. The Marshall Plan, which operated from 1948 through 1952, was an…...

mla

It is interesting to note that Truman, also in 1947, signed the National Security Act of 194. This act, similar to the Patriot Act after 9/11, created a unified Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council, who would oversee aspects of American security and defense around the world. They would also serve as the main bureaucracies for the Cold War, so Truman effectively created the tools to manage the Cold War when he signed the act. Truman made it clear that the country wanted peace, but they were not afraid to fight if they had to, and that sent an unsettling message to the communists.

Proponents of the document believe that the Truman Doctrine was directly responsible for Greek inclusion in western alliances and politics, and that if Greece had fallen to the communists, it would be a very difference country today. Instead of being aligned with the west, having a democratic government, and a thriving economy, Greece probably would have been a poorly developed country with many of the same social issues that many other former communist countries are facing today. They believe Greece would be much worse off than it is today. However, the Truman Doctrine did allow abuses of power and other outrages in the Greek government that threatened to topple it several times, however, and it led to ongoing tension between Turkey and Greece.

In conclusion, the Truman Doctrine did do good things around the globe, and it did help to keep communism from spreading. However, it also helped lead to anti-communist feelings in the country, it created a policy that involved us in skirmishes in Asia that killed thousands of Americans, and it helped create the tensions that led to the Cold War, a dangerous time in U.S. history. It was controversial at best.

Kennedy recognizes the need to establish a bond with all the South American leaders, thereby isolating Chavez-Chavez politically as ineffective leader in South America. Kennedy perceived the Third orld in terms of the "national military establishment," and vulnerable to the manipulations of the Soviet Union (Schwab, Orrin, 1998, 1). Kennedy had already gone around with Cuba, and did not wish to repeat his mistakes in Venezuela, but he also had no intention of surrendering Venezuela to the Soviet Union in the way in which Cuba had been surrendered before him.
President Kennedy saw South American diplomacy as the route to turning Venezuela away from bonding with the Soviet Union. He recognized that he could not alienate the rest of South America from the United States, or that would drive them into the sphere of Venezuela's influence over them towards the Soviet Union.

Kennedy calls a meeting with Chavez-Chavez, in private, with…...

mla

Works Cited

Brown, Seyom. Faces of Power. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100986354 

Clark, General Wesley K. Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Combat. New York: Public Affairs, 2001. Questia. 15 Nov. 2008  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100986356 .

A www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=65362550

DeConde, Alexander. A History of American Foreign Policy. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963. Questia. 15 Nov. 2008  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=65362550 .

The 1956 Suez Canal Crisis caused an indirect confrontation when America's allies France, Britain, and Israel made an unsuccessful military attempt to take over the Suez Canal from the Soviet Union's ally Egypt. After the U.S.S.. threatened to become militarily involved in the crisis, the U.S. forced its allies to concede defeat.
The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis occurred after the U.S. discovered that the U.S.S.. had secretly supplied Cuba with nuclear-armed missiles. This discovery was especially alarming because now the U.S.S.. could militarily subdue its rival by easily launching missiles against it. After a naval blockade around Cuba and intense negotiations the U.S.S.. was finally made to remove the missiles in exchange for the U.S. pledge not to overthrow Cuba's Communist regime.

eferences

The Cold War." (N.D) in the Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard 2005 CD....

mla

References

The Cold War." (N.D) in the Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard 2005 CD.

Kennedy Doctrine and the Cold War
In his inaugural address as the President of the United States on January 1961, John F. Kennedy (popularly called "JFK") delivered a message that directly discussed the United States' official stance regarding its move to implement a foreign policy waging a "cold war" against Communist forces that have been gaining popularity in Asia, South America, and parts of the Middle East during this period. his U.S. foreign policy, popularly called the containment policy against Communism, was the pretext from which the eventual Cold War between Democratic and Communist forces escalated until the 1970s. During this period, JFK was assigned the task of continuing the American legacy of democracy and liberty by promoting a campaign of international alliance and cooperation against the Communist forces. At this point, Communist forces were gaining ground in South America, increasing the threat to both American soil and the country's ideals…...

mla

These words communicate the message that the support poor nations might be receiving from the Communist forces such as Russia/Soviet Union (one of the stronger forces promoting Communism worldwide during this time), can be met and equaled by the United States, without sacrificing their liberties and human rights. JFK reiterated that human rights are given by the "hand of God," and not from the "generosity of the state," which characterized the complete control of the state/government under the Communist/Socialist society (Kennedy 1961). The doctrine ended with a reminder to United States allies to cooperate and join forces with the American government in its fight for democracy and freedom, as well as the containment of Communism worldwide. He presented a challenge to the American government's ally nations in "defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger," signaling the serious threat that Communism presented to the U.S. during JFK's term (Kennedy 1961). With its direct reference against Communism and its political and military forces in South America and neighboring countries of the United States, the doctrine had indeed solidified the country's fight against Communism -- albeit diplomatically and without the threat of weapons. It was hoped that the United States could prevent the Cold War with the U.S.S.R. from requiring military action and thankfully the war ended without either side having to fire a single shot.

Analysis of the U.S. government's containment policy during JFK's term as president was, in hindsight, shown to be geo-politically and economically-motivated. Leffler's (1984) explication of the United States' containment policy against Communist nations such as the Soviet Union was mainly a response to protecting U.S. interests in South American nations. During JFK's term, the U.S. had numerous interests in the region, which the author called the country's "strategic sphere," having established an "overseas base, air transit rights" that were beneficial to U.S. national security (Leffler 1984,-page 348). With Communism influencing nations in the South American region, the U.S. stood to lose all these strategic benefits, increasing the risk of its security from a geopolitical standpoint. A similar assessment was developed by Naji and Jawan (2011), who contended that what motivated the U.S. government to contain Communism in the Middle Eastern was not so much about the principles of democracy and freedom, but to protect its economic interests in the oil-rich region, as most of the oil companies are either owned, operated, or supported by U.S. companies (page 206-7). The imperative thing for the government was in keeping control of valuable resources and ensuring that these same resources remained out of the hands of the enemies of the American government.

Considering the effects that the containment policy contributed to international politics and the world order during JFK's time, it can be said that the policy made nations rethink about the world order and status quo as it stood

In this sense, Stalin decided to extend his influence and to impose certain types of government in countries such as Poland, Hungry, or omania. The same fate would have had Greece and Turkey as well, should the U.S. not have outlined the Truman Doctrine. It can be said that the doctrine itself was a reaction to the tendency of the soviets to extend their influence.
The Marshall Plan can be seen as the economic component of the Truman Doctrine. It was in fact a set of principles pointed out in 1947 at Harvard by Secretary of State George Marshall (American hetoric, 2008). This economic plan too was designed for cater for the economic needs of eastern countries as well, but seeing that the ussian side considered it to be the mere economic arm of the Truman Doctrine, it forced countries under its occupation to reject this reconstruction aid. In fact…...

mla

References

American Rhetoric. "The Marshall Plan 1947." American Rhetoric website. 2008. 30 Jan. 2008 http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/georgecmarshall.html

The Avalon Project. "The Truman Doctrine." Yale University. 2008. 30 Jan. 2008  http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/trudoc.htm

3. In February 1946, the U.. Treasury asked the U.. Embassy in Moscow why the oviet Union was not supporting the newly created World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Kennan wrote the response to these questions, but included a broader base.

4. Initially, the intended audience was the American government, but when the document was published in Foreign Affairs, the audience became the academic and interested public, along with a way to get the message to the populace about the actual motives of the U...R.

5. Kennan was far from being reactionary. He left out specifics on oviet aggression, but was writing based on the actions that he actually observed after World War II, and the signals he received from his diplomatic contacts within the oviet government.

6. The Kennan document, along with the Truman Doctrine, are seen as the basic documents that established U.. foreign policy towards the oviet Union after…...

mla

Sources of Soviet Conduct is also known as the "X Article," written by George Kennan who was the Deputy Mission Chief in the Soviet Union between 1944-46. Kennan wrote the article as a telegram, and it was published in Foreign Affairs magazine in July 1947.

2. Kennan's analysis of the Soviet Union states that they do not see the possibility of long-term peaceful coexistence with the capitalist world. Their aim is to advance the socialist cause, and capitalism was a menace to socialism. The U.S.S.R. would continue to build up its client states, and would use controllable Marxists within the capitalistic world as its allies. Further, Soviet aggression was not really aligned with the viewpoints of the Russian people or with the economic reality of the modern world, but more in historic Russian paranoia and xenophobia.

3. In February 1946, the U.S. Treasury asked the U.S. Embassy in Moscow why the Soviet Union was not supporting the newly created World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Kennan wrote the response to these questions, but included a broader base.

4. Initially, the intended audience was the American government, but when the document was published in Foreign Affairs, the audience became the academic and interested public, along with a way to get the message to the populace about the actual motives of the U.S.S.R.

5. Kennan was far from being reactionary. He left out specifics on Soviet aggression, but was writing based on the actions that he actually observed after World War II, and the signals he received from his diplomatic contacts within the Soviet government.

In fact, many people believe it was the final factor that led to disintegration of Soviet/U.S. relations, and directly led to the failure of the Moscow Conference of foreign ministers in March 1947. The conference had been convened in an attempt for the two powers to come to an agreement about situations in Europe, including whether or not to unify the German state, but with its failure, relations between the two countries became even more strained.
The Marshall Plan followed the Truman Doctrine in 1947, and was an attempt to boost the European economy after the war. Historian Whitcomb writes, "The Marshall Plan was conceived as a 'counter-offensive' to Moscow's moves in Eastern Europe and as a reaction to Stalin's decision, registered at the Moscow Conference, to rebuff all gestures of compromise looking toward settlement of the problems dividing Europe" (Whitcomb 84). It was an attempt to rebuild Europe instead…...

mla

References

Powaski, Ronald E. The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917-1991. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Whitcomb, Roger S. The Cold War in Retrospect: The Formative Years. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1998.

Strangely, America's role as policeman in Europe actually led to its becoming involved in military conflicts in Southeast Asia. Although the U.S. did not fight the Soviet Union directly in Korea or Vietnam, both conflicts were due to the U.S.'s policy of defeating the spread of Communism no matter where it might occur. Fears of escalation during both the Korean and Vietnam conflicts caused the U.S. To adopt a military strategy that favored limited warfare (Brodie).
The Cold ar had a tremendous impact on the growth of the United States as an industrial and world military power. America's presence throughout the world militarily and the dependence of estern Europe and Japan on the American economy for the sustenance of their own economies caused America's political and economic influence to expanded substantially. Beginning with the Berlin airlift (Reeves) where the United States provided food and other vital items to est Berliners…...

mla

Works Cited

Brodie, Bernard. War and Politics. New York: Macmillan Co., 1973.

Comstock, Douglas A. "NASA's Legacy of Technology Transfer and Prospects for Future Benefits." AIAA Space Conference & Exposition. Long Beach, CA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. 1-9.

Cox, M. "The Cold War as a system." Critique (1986): 17-82.

Lieber, Keir A. "The Rise of U.S. Nuclear Primacy." Foreign Affairs (2006): 42-67.

Evolution of U.S. oreign Policy under Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon towards the Soviet Union
oreign Policy towards the Soviet Union under Presidents Truman through to Nixon (1945-1974) was characterized by the "Cold War" -- a period of heightened tension between the two 'super powers' of the world. Even while being constrained by the compulsions of the 'Cold War,' the relations between the two countries gradually evolved into a less hostile association under successive U.S. Presidents in this period.

Harry Truman who became the U.S. President towards the end of World War II was the architect of the policy of containment of the Communism, led by the Soviet Union, around the world enshrined in the 'Truman Doctrine.' He was also instrumental in establishing a strong Western alliance called NATO in Europe that checked Soviet designs beyond Eastern Europe. Eisenhower continued with his predecessors' policy of "containment" without direct confrontation…...

mla

Foreign Policy towards the Soviet Union under Presidents Truman through to Nixon (1945-1974) was characterized by the "Cold War" -- a period of heightened tension between the two 'super powers' of the world. Even while being constrained by the compulsions of the 'Cold War,' the relations between the two countries gradually evolved into a less hostile association under successive U.S. Presidents in this period.

Harry Truman who became the U.S. President towards the end of World War II was the architect of the policy of containment of the Communism, led by the Soviet Union, around the world enshrined in the 'Truman Doctrine.' He was also instrumental in establishing a strong Western alliance called NATO in Europe that checked Soviet designs beyond Eastern Europe. Eisenhower continued with his predecessors' policy of "containment" without direct confrontation with the Soviet Union. While he extended U.S. aid and protection to South Vietnam to prevent it from being over-run by the Communists, he did not intervene when the U.S.S.R. crushed an uprising in Hungary in 1956 to avoid a nuclear confrontation. President Kennedy displayed great courage to force the Soviet Union from deploying nuclear weapons in Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1961 but later signed a limited nuclear test ban treaty with the U.S.S.R., which cooled down the Cold War temperature somewhat. President Johnson, though bogged down by the escalating Vietnam War, sought to improve relations with the Soviet Union and managed to attain its co-operation in containing the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. Finally, Nixon pursued a policy of detente (based on "realist" rather than "moral" principles) in the 1970s and developed more cordial relations with the Soviet Union. This resulted in signing of important anti-ballistic missile (ABM) and SALT treaties between the two super-powers and lowered the Cold War tensions.

As we saw in this essay, the relations between the U.S. And the U.S.S.R. were by no means static in the post World War II period until the mid-seventies. Although involved in an intense ideological struggle during the Cold War, they managed to avoid direct confrontation and even improved their relations. This was owed in no small measure to the wise foreign policy of the U.S. presidents from Truman down to Nixon.

S. administration after Truman's adopted Kennan's policy of 'containment' or its variation as a cornerstone of their foreign policy right until the eventual collapse of Communism in 1989. ("Kennan and Containment" n.d.)
eferences

Bell, P.M.H. (2001). The World since 1945 -- an International History. New York: Oxford University Press

George F. Kennan on the Web" (2005). History Politics and Future. etrieved on May 28, 2005 at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2496/future/kennan.html

Historian Walter Lefeber on Truman's Soviet Policy." (2000). PBS Online. etrieved on May 28, 2005 at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/filmmore/it_1.html

Kennan and Containment." (n.d.) Bureau of Public Affairs: U.S. Department of State. etrieved on May 28, 2005 at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cwr/17601.htm

Legvold, . (2005). "Cold War." Article in Encyclopedia Encarta Online. etrieved on May 28, 2005 at http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569374/Cold_War.html#p11

While the U.S. represented democracy, individual liberty and capitalism, the U.S.S.. was committed to the spread of the communist revolution among the 'down-trodden' masses of the world

The USS had already established a pro-Communist provisional government in Poland…...

mla

References

Bell, P.M.H. (2001). The World since 1945 -- an International History. New York: Oxford University Press

George F. Kennan on the Web" (2005). History Politics and Future. Retrieved on May 28, 2005 at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2496/future/kennan.html

Historian Walter Lefeber on Truman's Soviet Policy." (2000). PBS Online. Retrieved on May 28, 2005 at  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/filmmore/it_1.html 

Kennan and Containment." (n.d.) Bureau of Public Affairs: U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on May 28, 2005 at  http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cwr/17601.htm

rise of China in terms of its economy and military capability and in relation to the United States of America's national interest. Thou many have viewed this to be a threat to the U.S., but it isn't so, particularly to its' national interest with respect to China.
Despite of the fact that currently the relationship that exists between the U.S. And China is not as good as compared to the one that exited with the Bush administration, both countries have to work jointly in matters where they both have common interest. The research recommends that the U.S. foreign policy towards China be one that's aimed at seeking cooperation between both countries which will at the end be able to secure U.S. national interest with respect to China (Walt, 1998, p 41).

U.S. national interest in China

eferring to reports published by the Commission on America's National Interests; the reports indicate that generally…...

mla

References

Bergsten, F.C, Freeman C, Lardy, N., Mitchell, D, J (2008). China's Rise: Challenges and opportunities Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute for international Economics, pp256

Hassedt, P.G. (2004).Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy NY:132 west,31st street. Chapter one

Lampton D.M.(2008). The Three Faces of Chinese Power: Might, Money and Minds Berkeley: University of California Press .pp 361

Ross. R. Feng, Z. (2008)China's Ascent: Power, Security and the future of international politics, NY:Cornell University Press. pp 336

More often than not, the plan of containment has been used to describe U.S. foreign policy. It is equally frequently traced back to the achievements of President Truman with regard to the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
In 1950, there was a shift in foreign U.S. policy after President Truman moved from passive to active containment by signing the top-secret policy plan NSC-68. It took a much more drastic approach towards the spread of Communism, which according to the new twist, claimed that Russia was en route for the domination of the world. It should be noted however that the doctrine had some major weaknesses and was repeatedly subject to contradictory interpretations. This may have led several other presidents and policy makers to toy with it at will. It could also very well explain some of the many long involvements of the U.S. In diverse wars and…...

mla

.

7 Michael O'Malley, "The Vietnam War and the Tragedy of Containment."

.