Allport's point through all of his studies and research is that, in knowing personality traits of an individual and classifying them, we can better relate to them and they to us, and both understand and predict their behavior. (Allport & Allport, 1922).

Gordon Allport's point-of-view is supported by David Charles Funder in his book, Personality Judgment, (1999). Funder says of Allport: "his work on the conceptualization and measurement of personality is today regarded as definitive of mainstream personality psychology" (Funder, 1999, p. 13).

Funder believes, as did Allport, that personality traits are real attributes of individuals. The focus of Funder's research carries on with Allport's emphasis on the importance of identifying personality traits (trait theory). He has created what he calls the Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM) which says that accurate personality judgment is the result of a four-stage, social-cognitive process. His resultant point is that accurate personality judgment is very difficult.

Like Allport,…...

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Bibliography

Allport, G.W., & Allport, F.H. (1922). Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement (article). Journal of Abnormal Psychology edited by Morton Prince (peer-reviewed), 6-40.

Funder, D.C. (1999). Personality judgment: a realistic approach to person perception. St. Louis, MO: Academic Press (peer-reviewed).

Trait Theory
The central premise in the argument that leaders tend to be taller than followers is based on a logical fallacy concerning the nature of trait theory and leadership in general. Leadership theory focuses on what makes leaders effective, not the characteristics that put people into a leadership position in the first place. This essay will break down the argument for trait theory, why trait theory fell out of favor and why the point about leaders' height is irrelevant to the entire argument.

Trait theory is based on the assumptions that people are born with inherent traits, and that many of those traits are suited to leadership -- those who make good leaders are those with the right combination of traits in the right amount (ChangingMinds.org, 2011). In general, trait theory was based on personality traits as opposed to physical -- adaptability, assertiveness, decisiveness, self-confident, tolerant of stress, intelligence and creativity…...

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Works Cited:

Bolden, R.; Gosling, J.; Marturano, A. & Dennison, P. (2003). A review of leadership theory and competency frameworks. Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter. Retrieved January 29, 2011 from http://www2.fcsh.unl.pt/apsociedade/Lideran%C3%A7a.pdf

Case, A. & Paxson, C. (2008). Stature and status: Height, ability and labor market outcomes. Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 116 (3) 499-532.

ChangingMinds.org. (2011). Trait theory. Changing Minds.org. Retrieved January 29, 2011 from  http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/trait_theory.htm 

Doyle, M. & Smith, M. (2009). Classical leadership. InFed. Retrieved January 29, 2011 from  http://www.infed.org/leadership/traditional_leadership.htm

Psychological Trait Theory in Criminology:
The field of criminology can basically be described as the scientific study of criminals and criminal behavior since professionals in this field try to develop theories that explain the reason for the occurrence of crimes and test the theories through observation of criminal behavior. The criminological theories in turn help in shaping the response of the society to crime in relation to preventing criminal behavior and reacting to such behaviors after they occur. Generally, the field of criminology has evolved in three different phases since the inception of this discipline in the 18th Century. While crime and criminals have existed for as long as societies have existed, the systematic study of these incidents began in the late 1700s. Prior to this period, crime and criminal behavior were mainly equated to sin i.e. The infringement of a sacred obligation.

Evolution of the Discipline of Criminology:

As previously mentioned, the…...

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References:

Lynch, J.P. (n.d.). Criminology. Retrieved from University of Colorado Boulder website:

http://autocww2.colorado.edu/~toldy3/E64ContentFiles/LawAndCourts/Criminology.html

See, E. (2004). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Applications. Retrieved November 24, 2012, from http://roxbury.net/images/pdfs/ct4ssg.pdf

"Trait Theories." (2011). Chapter 5. Retrieved November 24, 2012, from http://ebooks.narotama.ac.id/files/Criminology%20(11th%20Edition)/CHAPTER%205%20Trait%20Theories.pdf

For instance, this theory holds that extraverts have low levels of cortical arousal and introverts high leaves, meaning extraverts need more stimulation for socializing and being outgoing, while introverts receive enough stimulation from their own physical make up. Since each person has differing levels of brain chemicals, there are thousands and thousands of factors that can be combined to make up unique personality dimensions. This view is more biochemical in nature, and believes that expression of traits will emerge regardless of the nurture factor (Eysenck, 2008).
Trait theory has a number of positives and negatives. It takes the general theme of the personality and breaks down certain factors that seem to retain vibrancy throughout the individual's life, at least when compared to larger groups. However, it also assumes that people remain rather stagnant as they age, and do not change in terms of their basic personality. It is likely, according…...

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REFERENCES

Trait Approach. (2010). Leadership Theory and Practice. Retrieved from:  http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/30933_Northouse_Chapter_2.pdf 

Daft, R. And Lane, D. (2008). The Leadership Experience. Mason, OH: Thompson Learning.

Dholakia, R. (1978). Personality Trait Theory and Consumer Behavior. Vikalpa. 3 (2): 111-119. Retrieved from: http://www.vikalpa.com/pdf/articles/1978/1978_Apr_Jun_111_119.pdf

Eyseneck, H. (2008). The Biological Basis of Personality. New York: Transaction Publishers.

Leadership: Theory and PracticeIntroductionThis paper explores my leadership practice in education concerning the values I stated earlier. It is concerned with how my leadership vision fits in with my actions. Many leadership definitions exist, but most of them suggest that influence initiated by a group, or one person, over others, is to determine the activities and shape relationships and what happens in a group. Concepts of leadership are viewed as a process of social influence. Still, they differ concerning the one that exerts influence, the form of the influence, the exercise\\\'s intention, and the results. Most of the research examines principals as the central source of leadership in learning institutions. While there are several definitions of leadership, most of them suggest that intentional influence is propelled by one individual or group over others to structure relationships in an organization or group.The concepts of leadership differ based on the person who…...

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ReferencesAhmed, Z., Nawaz, A., & Khan, I. U. (2016). Leadership theories and styles: A literature review. Journal of Resources Development and Management, 16.Bhindora, D. (2013). A review of leadership theories, principles, and styles and their relevance to University management. International Journal of Recent Advances in Multidisciplinary Research, 3, 6-15.Charry, K. (2012). Leadership theories - 8 major leadership theories. Retrieved March 23, 2014 from   (2017). Educational leadership. Retrieved from  https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/Images/271192-educational-leadership.pdf Lamb, R. (2013). How can managers use participative leadership effectively? Retrieved from http://www.task.fm/participative-leadership.Macbeth, J. and Dempster, N. eds. (2009) Connecting leadership and learning: Principles for practice. London, UK: RoutledgeNaylor, J. (1999). Management. Harlow, England: Prentice-Hall.http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.htm IGCSE.

Trait Leadership
Definitions / Descriptions of Trait Leadership

According to Peter Northouse's book, trait leadership focuses on identifying several qualities: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and sociability. Published in 2009, Northouse's book (Leadership: Theory and Practice) goes into great detail as to what constitutes trait leadership and what behaviors and values do not qualify vis-a-vis trait leadership. Northouse isn't alone in providing narrative that defines and describes trait leadership. A University of Cincinnati publication (Army Leadership Traits & ehaviors) explains that leadership trait theory focuses on a leader's: a) values and beliefs; b) personality; c) confidence; and d) mental, physical, and emotional attributes (www.uc.edu).

In the book The Anatomy of Leadership (West, 2000), the author asserts that trait leadership "makes the assumption" that there are "distinctive physical and psychological characteristics" -- above and beyond standard leadership -- that account for the effectiveness of a leader. Those traits include "height, attractiveness, intelligence, self-reliance, and creativity…"…...

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Bibliography

Bazerman, Max H., and Tenbrunsel, Ann E. 2011. 'Ethical Breakdowns,' Harvard Business Review. Retrieved January 10, 2013, from  http://hbr.org .

Dowie, Mark. 1977. 'Pinto Madness,' Mother Jones. Retrieved January 10, 2013, from  http://www.motherjones.com .

Gioia, Dennis A. 1994. 'Pinto Fires and Personal Ethics: A Script Analysis of Missed Opportunities', in The Ford Pinto Case: A Study in Applied Ethics, Business, and Technology, D. Birch and J. Fielder, Eds. State University of New York: Albany, NY.

Leggett, Christopher. 1999. 'The Ford Pinto Case: The Valuation of Life As It Applies To The Negligence-Efficiency Argument,' Retrieved January 10, 2013, from  http://www.wfu.edu .

Theory vs. Ideology
What is ideology?

Ideology is a belief system that supports and promotes personal or a group's social or religious agenda. In some cases its nature will be obvious to most people, but in other cases an ideology will be disguised as scientific fact based on nonexistent or reinterpreted empirical evidence. Ideologies are invariably supported by personally- or collectively-held religious or political beliefs, rather than extant empirical evidence or objective observation. Concepts within the ideology are typically framed in a black and white manner, such as right vs. wrong, just vs. unjust, and Evil Empire vs. God's Country. The use of such terminology has the effect of erasing the inherent complexity common to most social issues. From the perspective of a social scientist the most important characteristic is that ideologies are refractory to scientific inquiry and may go so far as to attack opposing beliefs to preserve its existence. Another…...

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Bibliography

Cusac, Anne-Marie (2009). Cruel and Unusual: The Culture of Punishment in America. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Long-Term Employment -- Japanese organizations tend to have longer employee cycles than U.S. companies. Many U.S. companies treat employees as replaceable parts. It is far more cost-effective and efficient to retain expertise than continually retrain. This keeps the knowledge base inside the company. Providing incentives for long-term employment, then, is an essential component of Theory Z

Consensual Decision Making -- hen employees feel that they have input into decisions that affect them, their jobs, and their daily processes, they are more likely to buy into those decisions and support change management.

Individual responsibility -- Moving away from 'the union mentality' and accepting measurement based on individual performance is tough for many Americans, but the balance between the group and the individual's participation actually empowers both.

Slow Evaluation and Promotion -- Rather than taking the short-term approach, as many American company's do, it is about the long-term strategy, not the monthly ROI. This encourages…...

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WORKS CITED

Barney, J. (2004). "An Interview with William Ouchi." Academy of Management

Executives.18 (4): 108-117.

Daft, R. (2004). "Theory Z: Opening the Corporate Door for Participative Management."

Academy of Management Executives. 18 (4): 117-22.

leadership theories and how they are influencing an organization. As, we carefully examine the different ones and discuss how this will impact the long-term sustainability of the firm. This is the point that we can determine how and when these different ideas should be used to motivate subordinates.
When most people hear the word leadership they will often think of a person that is sure of themselves. As they are using: their experiences and courage to help inspire everyone around them during the most challenging of times. Yet, when you look a little further, it is clear that genuine leadership is more than just an image or an ideal. Instead, it is common form of thinking and a way of life that can help to transform the world as we know it. To fully understand how this is taking place requires: providing a basic definition of this concept and examining…...

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Bibliography

Alasdair MacIntyre, 2011, Wikipedia. Available from: [10 Nov. 2011].

Concepts of Leadership, 2010, NW Link. Available from: [9 Nov. 2011].

Traditional Theories of Leadership, 2011, E How. Available from: [10 Nov. 2011]

Cherry, K, 2011, Leadership Theories, About. Available from: [9 Nov. 2011].

Criminology
The case of former colonel ussell Williams offers insight into the psychology of criminal behavior. Williams's confession interview was released to the public and aired on The Fifth Estate, offering criminologists, sociologists, psychologists, and law enforcement officials unique access to the mind of a criminal. Analysts interviewed for The Fifth Estate documentary note that Williams presents a conundrum for psychologists and criminologists, as his reactions to the police interview did not fit any previously known profile, such as that of a psychopath. Williams exhibits traits that resemble psychopathic behavior, in accordance with individual trait theory. For instance, he meticulously recorded his crimes and kept the photographic and video imagery as souvenir mementos.

Yet Williams also denies his right to an attorney, permits a foot imprint of his incriminating boots, and also states in the interview that he "was hoping" that he would not have raped or killed again had he not…...

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References

"Dr. John Bradford won't work Magnotta case because of PTSD," (2014). CBC. Mar 13, 2014. Retrieved online:  http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/dr-john-bradford-won-t-work-magnotta-case-because-of-ptsd-1.2571463 

Fifth Estate (2010). The Confession. [Video documentary].

Friscolanti, M. (2014). Russell Williams's wife knew he was a predator: victim. Maclean's. Retrieved online:  http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/russell-williamss-wife-knew-he-was-a-predator-victim/ 

La Salle, L. (2013). Colonel Russell Williams where have you been? I've been to London to fly the queen and back to collect artifacts. All Things Crime. Dec 11, 2013. Retrieved online:  http://www.allthingscrimeblog.com/2013/12/11/colonel-russell-williams-where-have-you-been-ive-been-to-london-to-fly-the-queen-and-back-to-collect-artifacts/

And certainly those men and women that have the ability to be trained, and have the character and judgment and willingness to be led before they are ready to lead, are certainly ready become military leaders. And just as a diamond must have three properties to become a diamond -- carbon, head, and pressure -- a leader must have three properties as well -- "character, knowledge, and application" (UC).
In conclusion, inspiring troops as they go into harm's way is the solemn, august responsibility of military leaders. The traits that a leader must have in order to lead and inspire, include: engendering trust; be willing to assume the same risks as those he is leading; be competent and cooperative and have sound judgment; and have the character and knowledge to know what to do and when to do it.

orks Cited

Crandall, Doug. (2006). Leadership Lessons from est Point. Hoboken, NJ: John…...

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Works Cited

Crandall, Doug. (2006). Leadership Lessons from West Point. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Harvey, Robert. (2008). Maverick Military Leaders: The Extraordinary Battles of Washington,

Nelson, Patton, Rommel and others. New York: Skyhorse Publishing.

Sweeney, Patrick J. (2010). Do Soldiers Reevaluate Trust in Their Leaders Prior to Combat

Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ) is based on trait theory of leadership, which suggests that individuals possess specific personality or behavioral traits conducive to leadership like expressiveness, sensitivity, and determination. The questionnaire does not measure one's efficacy or effectiveness as a leader. ather, the questionnaire is designed to measure self-perceptions and perceptions of others. Because it takes into account both self-reports and the perceptions of others measured on the same scale, the LTQ is robust and reflects prevailing literature that shows that personality assessed using both self and observer ratings explains more variance in leadership than self ratings of personality alone," (Colbert, Judge, Choi & Wang, 2012, p. 670). Answers on the LTQ will reflect more about the leadership style one exhibits than one's innate abilities or prior successes as a leader.
Some of the qualities listed on the LTQ include self-confidence, trustworthiness, and sensitivity. Most of the qualities on the…...

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References

Colbert, A.E., Judge, T.A., Choi, D. & Wang, G. (2012). Assessing the trait theory of leadership using self and observer ratings of personality. The Leadership Quarterly 23(4): 670-685.

Zaccaro, S.J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist 62(1): 6-16.

e. leadership (Pruyne, 2001, p. 6), but also that "determining how to abstract a set of leadership concepts that apply across contexts without sacrificing an understanding of how the conditions and qualities involved in leadership vary among those same contexts" remained elusive (Pruyne, 2001, p. 7). Experts provided extended series of examples, mostly from the 20th century, demonstrating how leadership characteristics change over time and vary with context. Therefore future, 21st-century leaders should learn from the confused, sometimes contradictory and still evolving historical development of the concept "leadership," in order to distill the useful concepts from mistakes and temporary analytical fads. What seems to persist from the development of leadership theory over the last three centuries, is that leaders can be made rather than born regardless of inherited socio-economic status, and that while certain traits may be more prominent or apparent in those who find themselves in positions of leadership…...

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References

House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P. And Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business 37, 3-10. Retrieved from  http://t-bird.edu/wwwfiles/sites/globe/pdf/jwb_globe_intro.pdf 

Kirkpatrick, K.A. And Locke, E.A. (1991). Leadership: do traits matter? Academy of Management Executive 5(2), 48-60. Retrieved from http://sbuweb.tcu.edu/jmathis/org_mgmt_materials/leadership%20-%20do%20traits%20matgter.pdf

Pruyne, E. (2002). Conversations on leadership. Harvard Leadership Roundtable 2000-2001, 1-

78 Center for Public Leadership, John F. Kennedy School of Government. Retrieved from  http://www.morehouse.edu/centers/leadershipcenter/pdf/ConversationsOnLeadership.pdf

Leadership Theories
Different Ways of Organizing in Supervision and Management

Organizing constitutes a crucial management function. It is essentially concerned with task allocation, division of labor, chain of command, lines of authority and communication, delegation, span of control, as well as supervision and coordination (Shafiee, Razminia & Zeymaran, 2016). The manner in which these processes are organized significantly influences organizational effectiveness and efficiency. It determines how quick or slow decisions are made and implemented. This is particularly important in a constantly evolving environment, in which agility is a crucial parameter of competitive advantage (Felin & Powell, 2016). Organizational structure also shapes relationships between superiors and subordinates (Shafiee, Razminia & Zeymaran, 2016).

There are different ways through which the organizing function may be executed. For instance, organizational structure may adopt either the centralized or decentralized form. The former entails concentrating decision-making authority in top organizational positions, while that latter involves distributing decision-making authority to…...

The four lanchard leadership styles include:
1) directive;

2) managing;

3) coaching; and 4) delegating. (Clawson, 1989)

2) House's Path Goal Theory of Leadership - the motivational function of the leader consists of increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment and making the path to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction en route. (Clawson,1989)

V. CHARISMATIC THEORY

Charismatic leadership is measured by: (1) Followers' trust in the correctness of the leader's belief; (2) similarity of followers' beliefs to the leader's beliefs; (3) unquestioning acceptance of the leader by followers; (4) followers' affection for the leader; (5) followers' willing obedience to the leader; (6) emotional involvement of followers in the mission of the organization; (7) heightened performance goals of followers; and (8) belief of followers that they are able to contribute to the success of the group's mission. (Clawson,

Charismatic leaders have the…...

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Bibliography

Liu, W., Lepak, D.P., Takeuchi, R., and Sims, H.P (2003) Matching Leadership Styles with Employment modes: Strategic Human Resource Management Perspective. Human Resource Management Review. 13 (2003).

Clawson, J.G. (1989) Leadership Theories. University of Virginia Darden School Foundation. Charlottesville, VA. Online SSRN Research.

Stodgills Handbook of Leadership (1981) revised Bernard M. Bass New York: The Free Press 1981.

Mintzberg, Henry (1973) Mintzberg's Ten Managerial Roles -the Nature of Managerial Work 1973.