Boko-Haram Study: Design
Multivariate techniques such as regression would be useful in conducting qualitative research when qualitative variables are used to explain behavior or outcomes. Such variables might include "sex, race, religion, nationality, geographical region, etc." (Uriel, 2013, p. 1). Regression analysis and other multivariate techniques are useful for describing the relationships among variables. When a dependent variable or outcome is assessed according to how it relates to various qualitative variables (such as the ones identified above), multivariate techniques such as regression can be useful in assessing that relationship. In the case of a study addressing terrorism in African (Boko-Haram specifically), regression may be used because of the qualitative study's assessment of the relationship among the various qualitative variables (sex, gender, religion, geographical region) and the spread of Boko-Haram's influence.

The considerations I have made relative to techniques of analysis are that for this particular case of Boko-Haram in Africa, it is…...

Experimental Study Design and Intention to Treat
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) association with HIV Infection in Gay Men

The population for this research will comprise of persons enrolled in one out of five CPCA (Community Programs for Clinical esearch on AIDS) studies at sixteen CPCA facilities across America. The five researches will take the form of four randomized clinical trials (CTs) for antiretroviral (AV) therapy strategies and one natural history analysis of AV treatment-naive patients. During enrolment in the study, researchers will determine every participant's HCV serostatus. Past positive results for HCV antibody test will also be accepted. HCV serological examinations will be locally conducted at baseline in case of patients without recorded HCV antibody test results or those showing negative HCV antibody results from eleven years prior to randomization. The baseline characteristics outlined include ethnicity, gender, age, plasma HIV viral load, history of IDU (injection drug use), CD4+ count, AV therapy…...

mla

References

Abraha, I. & Montedori, A. (2010). Modified intention to treat reporting in randomized controlled trials: Systematic review. BMJ. 340:c2697.

Bradshaw, D., Matthews, G. & Danta, M. (2013). Sexually transmitted hepatitis C infection: the new epidemic in MSM? Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 26(1):66-72.

Gupta, S. K. (2011). Intention-to-treat concept: A review. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 2(3), 109-112. doi. 10.4103/2229-3485.83221

Schmidt, A.J., Falcato, L., Zahno, B., et al. (2014). Prevalence of hepatitis C in a Swiss sample of men who have sex with men: whom to screen for HCV infection? BMC Public Health. 14:3.

How can an individual student be studied validly?An individual student can be validly studied through the use of a single subject. In the single-subject study, there are ways to measure and report single student intervention validly. Such intervention may include education in various situations and within all levels (Check & Schutt, 2011). The use of single-subject criteria to study an individual student depends on putting preintervention mechanisms, making various decisions on the effectiveness of the interventions, identifying the intervention center, availing the intervention, and putting any additional necessary measures. Subsequently, the single-subject design fundamentally believes that there will have to be a recognizable status change in any successful intervention. As a result, through single-subject criteria, there are several avenues to ensure that an intervention is genuinely studying an individual student (Check & Schutt, 2011).Consequently, there are three phases within a single subject design. The phases include baseline, treatment, and repeated…...

mla

References

Check, J., & Schutt, R. K. (2011). Research methods in education. Sage Publications.

Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional children, 71(2), 165-179.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY DESIGNS IN THE MEDIA Epidemiological Study Designs in the MediaThe mass media article that I came across is titled, Less than 7% of Americans Have Good Heart Health with Minorities and Less Educated People Suffering the Most, Study Finds. The article appeared on Daily Mail and was published on the 4th of July 2022. The peer-reviewed article cited in the mass media source is titled, Trends and Disparities in Cardiometabolic Health among U.S. Adults, 1999-2018. This particular peer-reviewed article was published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology. The authors of the study make a finding to the effect that the cardiometabolic health of American adults has been on the downward trend over the last two decades. Indeed, as the authors further indicate, a whopping 93.2% of American adults have poor cardiometabolic health. The article also highlights the various disparities that exist on this front.There…...

mla

ReferencesCurley, A. L. (Ed.). (2020). Population-Based Nursing: Concepts and Competencies forAdvanced Practice (3rd ed.). Springer.O’Hearn, M., Lauren, B.N., Wong, J.B., Kim, D.D. & Mozaffarian, D. (2022). Trends and Disparities in Cardiometabolic Health among U.S. Adults, 1999-2018. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 80(2), 138-151. Shaheen, N. (2022). Less than 7% of Americans Have Good Heart Health – with Minorities and Less Educated People Suffering the Most, Study Finds.  https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-10981603/Less-7-Americans-good-heart-health.html

group and the nature of the study population. Both may present limitations to the researcher that will be reflective in the study design. In a quasi-experimental study, for instance, the study design lacks a fundamental component of a customary experimental design, namely randomization of the participants into study groups. Geographic limitations or the specificity of the participation qualifications may hinder the researcher from randomizing the subjects. An ex post facto study investigates possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing an existing condition and looking back into the past for valid causal factors. A certain study bias, however, is inherent in this type of study design because the variables are separated by time. Meanwhile, a correlational study compares two or more variables concurrently in detailed bivariate regression analyses. A common objective of this type of study is to determine the correlation between certain defining characteristics of the subjects and the effectiveness of…...

mla

References

Coughlan, M., Cronin, P., Ryan, F. (2007). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research. British Journal of Nursing, 16, 11, 658-663.

Hielkema, M., Winter de, A.F., Meer de, G., Reijneveld, S.A. (2011). Effectiveness of a family-centered method for the early identification of social-emotional and behavioral problems in children: a quasi-experimental study. BioMed Central Public Health, 11, 636, 1-9.

Huang, C.Y., Perng, S.J., Chen, H.F., Lai, C.Y. (2008). The Impact of Learned Resourcefulness on Quality of Life in Type II Diabetic Patients: A Cross-Sectional Correlational Study. Journal of Nursing Research, 16, 4, 264-273.

Watson, D., Clark, L.A., Stasik, S.M. (2011). Emotions and emotional disorders: A quantitative hierarchical perspective. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 11, 3, 429-442.

Qualitative Business Case Study: A Discussion Business case studies are valuable educational tools used by educators, institutions, students and corporations within continuing education programs. Creating a case study or analyzing one written by a professor or executive, forces one to examine the strengths and weaknesses, successes and pitfalls of a particular business by analyzing precise situations, formulating one’s own conclusions and then making recommendations or other such inferences based on the data or predictions drawn from the data.
Case Study Design
The case study will manifest in a narrative or story-centric structure. The “main character” will be introduced early on in the case study as someone with a necessary objective or a specific but perhaps somewhat confounding choice that needs to be addressed (Schweitzer, 2015). The story of the main character remains interwoven throughout the case study design, offering necessary information about the company in question, the overall situation, and the major stakeholders…...

authors used to evaluate their study rationale was a quasi-experimental, retrospective matching birth cohort. This study retrospectively analyzed demographic and immunization record data in 2006-2007. The data was gathered from 10,857 birth records of children born between April 1999 and September 2003. The researchers chose to study a Latino community located in New York City and sampled from four zip codes. Birth data was collected from the primary community hospital that serves these zip codes. The authors divided the birth study population into four groups, or cohorts. Each cohort represented birth data from children who were aged 19-35 months as of April 1st during 2002-2005. Each birth cohort was then divided into two groups: intervention and control. Demographic data was collected from the hospital database, and immunization data was collected from the New York Citywide Immunization egistry (CI). Outcome measures included immunization timelines such as being up-to-date for a…...

mla

REFERENCES

1. Findley S, et al. Effectiveness of a Community Coalition for Improving Child Vaccination Rates in New York City. Am J. Public Health. 2008;98:1959-1962.

2. Peter J. Fos (2011). Epidemiology Foundations: The Science of Public Health. San Francisco, CA.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3. Irigoyen MM, et al. Challenges and successes of immunization registry reminders at inner-city practices. Ambul Pediatr. 2006;6(2):100-4.

4. Smith, AD. (2000). Myths and Memories of the Nation. New York: Oxford University Press.

Qualitative Case Study AssignmentIntroductionThe qualitative case study serves as a research methodology that enables the exploration of a specific phenomenon within a particular context, utilizing various data sources. This approach examines the phenomenon from multiple perspectives, unveiling its diverse facets (Baxter & Jack, 2008). By investigating real-time occurrences within their natural contexts, case studies acknowledge the influence of the surrounding circumstances (Kaarbo & Beasley, 1999).A case study is a commonly employed methodology within qualitative research (Yazan, 2015). Nevertheless, due to the lack of well-structured and comprehensive protocols, it has not established itself as a fully recognized social science research strategy (Yin, 2002). Consequently, novice researchers who intend to utilize this methodology often face confusion regarding the essence of a case study and its distinction from other qualitative research methods (Merriam, 1998).While a considerable amount of literature exists on the theory and application of qualitative research (see Creswell, 2013; Marshall &…...

mla

ReferencesAnthony, S., & Jack, S. (2009). Qualitative case study methodology in nursing research: An integrative review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(6), 1171-1181.Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544-559. Retrieved from   S. L., Ireland, S., Kirkpatrick, H., & Robertson, K. (2013). Using Stake’s Qualitative Case Study Approach to Explore Implementation of Evidence-Based Practice. Qualitative Health Research, 23(9), 1267–1275.Boyne, G. A. (2004). Explaining public service performance: does management matter? Public Policy and Administration, 19(4), 100-117. doi: 10.1177/095207670401900406Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Creswell, J. W., Hanson, W. E., Clark Plano, V. L., & Morales, A. (2007). Qualitative research designs: Selection and implementation. The Counselling Psychologist, 35, 236–264.Creswell, J. W., Hanson, W. E., Plano, V. L. C., & Morales, A. (2007). Qualitative research designs selection and implementation. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(2), 236-264.Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.Fleury, S., Bloch, R., Bravo, R., & Bicudo, V. (2003). Análise do perfil dos artigos publicados na Revista de Administração Pública. Rio de Janeiro: EAESP/FGV.Gill, J., & Meier, K. (2000). Public administration research and practice: a methodological manifesto. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(1), 157-199.Gondim, S., Sá, M., Melo, L., Barbosa, S., Vasconcellos, C., & Gomes, S. (2005). Da descrição do caso à construção da teoria ou da teoria à exemplificação do caso? Uma das encruzilhadas da produção do conhecimento em administração e áreas afins. Organizações & Sociedade, 12(35), 47-68.Guerra, M., Gomes, A. de O., & Filho, A. I. da S. (n.d.). Case Study in Public Administration: A Critical Review of Brazilian Scientific Production. RAC, Rio de Janeiro, v. 19, n. 2, art. 6, pp. 270-289.Hancock, D. R., & Algozzine, B. (2016). Doing case study research: A practical guide for beginning researchers. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Hocayen-da-Silva, A. J., Rossoni, L., & Ferreira, I., Jr. (2008). Administração pública e gestão social: a produção científica brasileira entre 2000 e 2005. Revista de Administração Pública, 42(4), 655-680. doi: 10.1590/S0034-76122008000400002Kaarbo, J., & Beasley, R. K. (1999). A practical guide to the comparative case study method in political psychology. Political Psychology, 20, 369–391.Kettl, D. F. (2000). Public administration at the millennium: the state of the field. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(1), 7-34.Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley.Ongaro, E. (2008). Introduction: the reform of public management in France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 21(2), 101-117.Parlett, M., & Hamilton, D. (1976). Evaluation as illumination: A new approach to the study of innovative programmes. In G. Glass (Ed.), Evaluation studies review annual, I (pp. 140-157). Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE Publications.Rashid, Y., Rashid, A., Warraich, M. A., Sabir, S. S., & Waseem, A. (2019). Case Study Method: A Step-by-Step Guide for Business Researchers. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18, 1–13.Roesch, S. (2003). Quem responde pelo desempenho limitado da produção científica em administração no Brasil? Organizações & Sociedade, 10(28), 165-167.Stake, R. E. (1994). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 236-247). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Yazan, B. (2015). Three approaches to case study methods in education: Yin, Merriam, and Stake. The Qualitative Report, 20(2), 134-152. Retrieved from  http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR20/2/yazan1.pdf Yin, R. K. (2002). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.Yin, R. K. (2009). How to do better case studies. The SAGE Handbook of Applied Social Research Methods, 2, 254–282.Yin, R. K. (2011). Applications of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Yin, R. K. (2017). Case study research and applications: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter.pdf Boblin,

The more that your questions are descriptive or explanatory the more that the case study method will be relevant;
How should I select the case to be studied?": According to Yin: "you need sufficient access to the potential data, whether involving people to be interviewed documents or records to be reviewed, or observations to be made in the 'field'. Given such access to more than a single candidate, you should choose the one(s) that best illuminate(s) your research questions. Absent such access, you should consider changing your research questions, hopefully leading to new candidates to which you do have access."

I am studying a school. What is my case: Is it the teachers? The reading program? The whole school?: Yin states: "The specific definition of your case again depends upon your research question(s). The least desirable question is to want to know "everything that happened." Your literature review should help lead…...

mla

Bibliography

Audet, Michael (2005) Teacher Professional Growth Plans: A Case Study of the Chilliwack School District. 21 April 2005. Online available at  http://ir.lib.sfu.ca/retrieve/2221/etd1914.pdf 

Creswell, J.W. (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lenz, Pamela A. (2005) Perceived Influence on School Effectiveness: Chapters I-III. January 2005. Online available at http://www.education.duq.edu/pdf/Talking_Paper-Lenz.pdf

Yin R.K. 1994: Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Second Edition, Sage Publications London

For example, an upscale restaurant, mid-market clothing store, hardware store, and general store could all be sampled, and over the course of four days shoppers could be asked to respond to a survey at the check-out counter about their perceptions of the store and shopping experience. The data could then be analyzed demographically, in terms of consumer perceptions, and also precisely what the different shoppers bought on different days, as opposed to what they said they would buy. This would also allow repeated testing -- using the same four-day musical format over different periods of the year at different stores. The article's study takes the form of a posttest only study design: the independent variable of the music (or in the case of the control group, the lack thereof) is applied, and then subjects record their responses.
The advantage to the test is that there is no 'learning,' necessary to…...

mla

Reference

North, Adrian C. & David J. Hargreaves. (1998). The effect of music on atmosphere and purchase intentions in a cafeteria. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 28 (24):

Experimental Method Design Project
Impact of different types of support systems on postpartum depression in women

he research question under study is the degree to which support structures can affect the severity of the symptoms of postpartum depression. Other questions that may be considered include whether certain support structures are more valuable than others, such as the father of the child vs. family members and friends, or formal, professional supportive structures such as through a hospital or school.

Selection

he first difficulty of studying women with postpartum depression is finding women who can be the object of study. Not all women suffer from postpartum depression, so a generalized study of pregnant women is not sufficient. he most appropriate methodology would be to study women currently identified as suffering from postpartum depression. Subjects could be contacted through physicians and also through soliciting volunteers through advertisements on parenting-themed websites. hey could also be contacted through the…...

mla

The women in the study will be subjected to a 'follow up' series of interviews within six months, after the initial series of interviews. This will allow the research to be contextualized in terms of the women's recovery or trajectory of the illness, to assess the impact of support after identification and treatment in the long-term.

Reference

Borgatti, Steve. (n.d). Introduction to grounded research. Retrieved July 23, 2011 at  http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/introtoGT.htm

It was clear that destructive disobedience does create a stressful situation, as the participants knew they were doing harm by obeying these orders. Some participants even showed nervous laughter and uncontrollable seizures in 3 of the participants (Milgram 1963). In terms of how far they lasted in the study, the results were actually surprising. Thus, "upon the command of the experimenter, each of the 40 subjects went beyond the expected break off point" (Milgram 1963 p 375). Only 5 refused to obey at the 300-volt level, with 2 more at 330 volts. In total, 14 subjects "defied the experimenter," leaving 26 to obey the rules of the experiment until the very end, showing a willingness to inflict even the strongest shocks out of obedience.
Yet, the study found negative consequences being experienced by the participants, as the experience left the participants incredibly nervous and anxious. Many also regretted how far…...

mla

References

Milgram, Stanley. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 67(4), 371-378.

Likewise, the study concluded that new teachers were significantly less confident in their respective ability to deal with bullies and their parents than with victims of bullying and their parents. The study disclosed that new teachers also realized their limitations in dealing with bullies and recognized the likely benefits of specific training in this area. The most natural extension of this study in the future would be to repeat it using more experienced teachers to determine whether and to what degree increased experience relates to greater response and how much of any recorded difference is a function of confidence on the part of experienced teachers. Finally, one of the most interesting areas of future research would be in the realm of a 2008 study (Song & Soiber) that is not included in this literature review. That study summarized much of the available previous literature on the general subject of…...

mla

References

Bauman, S., and Del Rio, a. (2006). "Preservice Teachers' Responses to Bullying

Scenarios: Comparing Physical, Verbal, and relational Bullying" Journal of Educational Psychology; Vol. 98, No.1: 219-231.

Nicolaides, S., Toda, Y., and Smith, P. (2002). "Knowledge and Attitudes About School Bullying in Trainee Teachers" British Journal of Educational Psychology; Vol. 72: 105-118.

Song, S.Y., and Stoiber, K.C. (2008). "Children Exposed to Violence at School: An Evidence-Based Intervention Agenda for the 'Real' Bullying Problem" Journal of Emotional Abuse; Vol. 8(1/2).

Although international comparison of SC is difficult, the medical implications of the procedure are questionable, a nd, therefore, SC is a method that is best avoided.
Research Method

Two random samples of prisoners on remand on solitary confinement and non-SC were selectively studied. Age was between 18 to 60, and both genders were included. The SC group consisted of 133 participants. The non-SC group consisted of 95 participants.

Using a parallel study design, participants in both groups were interviewed by psychiatrist after imprisonment and given cognitive assessment day after interview. The assessments were longitudinal repeated assessments.

The interview employed the following aspects: Present State Examination, 10th edn (PSE-10).; Hamilton Anxiety and Depression Scales (HAS & HDS); assessment of usage of drugs; Sociodemographic interview; Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS); General Health Questionnaire; and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

Medical as well as criminal files of each subject were examined.

A three-way analysis of variance was used to…...

" (2002) This is still possible for children who gain their education through independent study programs in that they are still able to participate in extra-curricular activities and are not so exhausted while doing so when they are being educated through independent study programs instead of being forced to endure very long school days that drains them and bars them from physically being able to participate in extracurricular activities with other children.
It is not only children who have learning disabilities who benefit from Independent Study Programs as evidenced in the work of Simpson (2007) entitled: "Educational Options for Gifted Learners" who relates that inclusive in the wide range of options for the gifted student is 'Independent Learning' through a differentiated curriculum. The independent learning program for gifted students serves to foster independence and nurture self-regulation, self-reliance, resourcefulness while allowing students to formulate their own learning and as well serves to…...

mla

Bibliography

Lennstrom, Henry Walter (1973) an Analysis of Independent Study Programs in the Junior Community Colleges. ERIC ED087516 Digest. Online available at  http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED087516&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED087516 

Kassof, Annie (2004) Independent Study Program Offers Model for State. Berkeley Daily Planet. 17 Dec 2004. Online available at  http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/article1.cfm?archiveDate=12-17-04&storyID=20315 

Rafoth, Mary Ann (2007) Independent Study - Purposes and Goals of Independent Study, Independent Study and Extensiveness in Grades K-12. Education Encyclopedia - State University. Online available at  http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2080/Independent-Study.html 

Stroman, Bonne (2006) Independent Study - Texas Performance Standards Project. Online available at  http://www.texaspsp.org/exit/deliveryISM.php?p=2

Schmidt’s study on the effect of humor on memory is well-known, not only for its results, but also for its simple study design. The study, or actually the series of studies, suggested that humor increased attention and rehearsal of material, improving overall material of humorous material versus non-humorous material.  The study designs were simple comparative studies that directly compared humorous and non-humorous materials.  However, there is a problem with those studies.  While there are well-known health benefits of humor and laughing, humor is subjective.  That subjectivity can make it difficult to design a....

Essay Topics Related to Case Study

Case studies offer rich and complex insights into real-world phenomena, making them valuable tools for research and analysis. Here are some essay topics that explore various aspects of case studies:

Effectiveness and Impact of Case Studies

Evaluating the effectiveness of case studies as a research method
Assessing the impact of case studies on policy and decision-making
Exploring the limitations and challenges of case study research

Methodological Approaches in Case Studies

Comparing different methodological approaches to case study design
Analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches
Examining ethical considerations in case study research

Case Study....

Sure, here is an example of the methodology section for a research proposal on exploring the factors influencing student dropout rates:

Methodology:

1. Study Design:
This research will employ a quantitative research design to explore the factors influencing student dropout rates. A survey will be conducted to gather data from a sample of students who have dropped out of school. The survey will include questions about demographics, academic performance, social factors, and reasons for dropping out.

2. Sampling:
The target population for this study will be students who have dropped out of school within the past academic year. A convenience sample of 200 students will....

The choice of research design can impact the validity of study findings in a few key ways:

1. Internal validity: The extent to which the study design accurately measures the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Different research designs (e.g., experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational) have different strengths and weaknesses in terms of internal validity. For example, experimental designs are generally considered to have higher internal validity compared to correlational studies because of their ability to control for extraneous variables and establish causation.

2. External validity: The extent to which the findings from a study can be generalized to other populations,....