Tests are therefore conducted to examine if there is a presence of S. aureus that caused the illness and if the bacteria is or can be recognised as a potential source for food poisoning (Bennet & Lancette, 2001). One such test is known under the name of Direct Plate Count Method as it was illustrated by Bennet and Lancette, generally requiring a step-by-step procedure involving a. Equipment and materials, B. Media and reagents, C. Preparation of sample, D. Isolation and enumeration of S. aureus, E. coagulase test, F. ncillary tests, and G. Knowledge of some typical characteristics of species of staphylococci and micrococci (Bennet & Lancette, 2001).
fter considering several mediums for growing Staphylococcus, it seems Tryptic Soy gar (TS) is of some convenience as it allows for the cultivation of a wide variety of microorganisms. lso, the nutritional composition favours plate counting which is beneficial in the examination of…...

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After considering several mediums for growing Staphylococcus, it seems Tryptic Soy Agar (TSA) is of some convenience as it allows for the cultivation of a wide variety of microorganisms. Also, the nutritional composition favours plate counting which is beneficial in the examination of food.

In cases of antibiotic resistance, the issue is first and perhaps foremost of hygiene. Afterwards it is an issue of people having to take antibiotics only when necessary. Of course, these are preventive measures that generally are required from individuals. Overcoming antibiotic resistance has taken a new approach as exemplified by Levy (2002) and it consists of trasferring the resistance genes into other bacteria through several genetic means (p. 26). Of the three adoptive methods, it seems the latter, that of DNA released of dead bacteria and incorporated into new strains has also proved efficient in resisting among pneumococci and Haemophilus spp. (Levy, 2002, p. 26)

For determining antibiotic resistance a few sensitive testing methods exist: dilution methods, disk diffusion method, E-test, automated antimicrobial susceptibility testing systems, mechanism-specific tests, and genotypic

Lyme Disease and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA)
Introduction

This text will concern itself with Lyme disease and methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). In so doing, it will not only give the description and epidemiology of the concerns, but also the etiology and prevention strategies. Further, diagnosis as well as treatment options and prognosis will be highlighted.

1. Lyme Disease

Description and Etiology

Described as an illness that is often debilitating, Lyme disease, as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention- CDC (2018) points out, “is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected blacklegged ticks.” It is important to note that in addition to the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, blacklegged ticks are capable of transmitting what are commonly referred to as coinfections, i.e. a variety of other disease-causing parasites as well as viruses and bacteria. Those living in wooded areas have a high likelihood of getting Lyme disease, as…...

Biofilm
In order to evaluate the validity of the hypothesis "catabolite control of S. epidermidis biofilm formation is indirectly regulated by CcpA-dependent of the TCA cycle," a laboratory study was performed and then documented in the article "CcpA coordinates central metabolism and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis." Through their research, the authors of the article ultimately determined that CcpA is in fact a positive effecter of biofilm formation of S. epidermidis, along with icaADBC transcription and a repressor of TCA cycle activity.

The general profile of S. epidermidis shows that it is a pathogen that is opportunistic in nature, therefore primarily infecting patients who are immunocompromised. It is often a cause of infections for patients who receive implanted biomedical devices. This pathogen makes itself particularly difficult to treat in these situations due to the formation of a biofilm, which encapsulates the bacteria in an exopolysaccharide matrix. It is therefore valuable to discover…...

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References

Fluckiger, U, Ulrich, M, Steinhuber, A, Doring, G, Mack, D, Landmann, R, Goerke, C & Wolz, C, 2005, 'Biofilm Formation, icaADBC Transcription, and Polysaccharide Intercellular Adhesin Synthesis by Staphylococci in a Device-Related Infection Model, Infection and Immunity, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 1811-1819.

Sadykov, M, Olson, M, Halouska, S, Zhu, Y, Fey, P, Powers, R & Somerville, G 2008, 'Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle-Dependent Regulation of Staphylococcus epidermidis Polysaccharide Intercellular Adhesin Synthesis', Journal of Bacteriology, vol. 190, no. 23, pp. 7621-7632.

Sadykov, M, Hartmann, T, Mattes, T, Hiatt, M, Jann, N, Zhu, Y, Ledala, N, Landmann, R, Herrmann, M, Rohde, H, Bischoff, M & Somerville, G 2011, 'CcpA coordinates central metabolism and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis', Microbiology, vol. 157, pp. 3458-3468.

Seidl, K, Goerke, C, Wolz, C, Mack, D, Berger-Bachi, B & Bischoff, M, 2008, 'Staphylococcus aureus CcpA Effects Biofilm Formation', Infection and Immunity, vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 2044-2050.

NOVEL AGENT OF CONTOL Assignment 2: Novel Agent of ControlIn the present undertaking, I would be interested in in the design of a novel cleaning agent against Staphylococcus bacteria. More specifically, I would be targeting Staphylococcus aureus which has been associated with a wide range of infections including, but not limited to, soft tissue and skin infections (i.e. furuncles and abscesses). Its cell envelope, as Wang, Buist, and Dijl (2022) observe is composed of a cytoplasmic membrane that is surrounded by a thick layer of peptidoglycan (89). The potential target within the staph aureus bacteria would be its cell structure - more specifically, the disruption of its cell membrane.One chemical compound that could come in handy in efforts to disrupt the staph aureus bacteria cell membrane is hydrogen peroxide. More specifically, this particular compound, as Anderson, Groundwter, Todd, and Worsley (2012) indicate has been shown to cause disturbances in the…...

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ReferencesAnderson, R., Groundwter, P.W., Todd, A. & Worsley, A. (2012). Antibacterial Agents: Chemistry, Mode of Action, Mechanisms of Resistance and Clinical Applications. John Wiley & SonsEnany, S. & Alexander, L.E. (2017). Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus. BoD. Wang, M., Buist, G. & Dijl, J.M. (2022). Staphylococcus aureus cell wall maintenance – the multifaceted roles of peptidoglycan hydrolases in bacterial growth, fitness, and virulence. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 46(5), 87-94.

hospitals is the spread of MSA (staphylococcus aureus). This pathogen remains a leading cause of hospital-acquired infection. Current 'typing' methods for the genome to identify the pathogen include "phage typing, multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE)" but these methods "have serious limitations when used to investigate the finer details of infection outbreaks" (Price et al. 2013: 14). This is why the use of whole genome sequencing that allows scientists to create distinctions up to a single nucleotide is useful. Whole genome sequences can be used to classify and characterize genetic differences in a far more refined fashion than previous methods "and additionally provides information about the genetic basis of phenotypic characteristics, including antibiotic susceptibility and virulence" (Price et al. 2013: 14). Local-level awareness of the history of disease transmission allows a more carefully matched protocol for treatment as well as improves tracking. "Combined with epidemiological data,…...

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References

Blot, S.I. (2002 et al.). Outcome and attributable mortality in critically Ill patients with bacteremia involving methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Archives of Internal Medicine, 162(19):2229-35.

Price, J.R. (2013) .Whole genome sequencing in the prevention and control of Staphylococcus aureus infection. Journal of Hospital Infection, 83: 14-21.

Methicillin-esistant Staphylococci (MSA), most common Healthcare Associated Infections
The PICOT question to be discussed is: For adult patients using catheters, does the use of sterilization practices reduce the future risk of health associated infections like MSA compared with standard procedure in one week?

The answer is yes.

The support given to answer the question will be based on peer-reviewed journals and scientific literature. A summary of the evidence will be availed in a chart plus a conclusion that summarizes evidence used will also be given.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSA) bacteria is resistant to several antibiotics. A significant proportion of MSA infections in the community are on the skin. It results in alarming infections of the bloodstream, surgical site infections and pneumonia in health facilities. Studies have revealed that one person in every three individuals have staph in the nose - most of the time they don't show any illnesses (General Information About MSA). 2%…...

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References"

1)

General Information About MRSA in the Community. (n.d.). Retrieved February 21, 2015, from  http://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/community/index.html 

2)

Sydnor, E., & Perl, T. (2011). Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control in Acute-Care Settings. Clinical Microbiology Reviews,24(1), 141-173. Retrieved February 21, 2015, from  http://cmr.asm.org/content/24/1/141.full

Based on the results of these assays, S. flexneri can often be identified, although additional kits may be required. The simplest way, however, may be the novel approach through multiplex PCR (mRPC). It is possible to identify Shigella species through mPCR techniques by identifying pathogenicity islands associated with Shigella and S. flexneri.
6. How could you create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin? (You need to include techniques, steps, enzymes, etc.)

In order to create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin, scientists would first need to incorporate the human fibrin gene within the corn plant genome. The incorporated human gene would require regulation and promoter sequences that would function within the plant cell. Proper splicing sequences would also be required or removal of the introns altogether.

The delivery of transgenes into the corn plant could be accomplished through electroporation into corn protoplasts followed by…...

Aureus
Current Areas of esearch

Much of the current research on staphylococcus aureus centers on the emergence of antibiotic-resistance strains. In particular, the resistant strain MSA is resistant to methicillin and related drugs. This has created a number of issues for medical practitioners, as staph infections are one of the more common infections that occur in a health setting.

One of the threads of research in this regard concerns the spread of staph infection in the hospital setting. It has long been believed that s. aureus infections were transmitted between patients. Where outbreaks have occurred, the response has generally reflected this view, with patients being segregated, and other similar remedies. ecent research has shown, however, that transmission between patients in the intrahospital setting does not occur nearly as much as previously thought (Long, Beres, Olsen & Musser, 2014). This is an important finding for health care facilities, because it changes the way that…...

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References

Haba, E., Bouhdid, S., Solana, N., Marques, A., Espuny, M., Celma, M. & Manresa, A. (2014). Rhamnolipids as emulsifying agents for essential oil formulations:

Antimicrobial effect against Candida albicans and methicillin-resistant

Staphylococcus aureus. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. Vol. 476 (2014) 134-141.

Kriegeskorte, A., Block, D., Drescher, M.., Windmuller, N.,Mellmann, A.,Baum, C., Neumann, C., Lore, N., Bragonzi, A., Liebau, E., Hertel, P., Seggeweiss, J., Becker, K., Proctoer, R., Peters, G., & Kahl, B. (2014). Inactivation of thyA in staphylococcus aureus attenuates virulence and has a strong impact on metabolism and virulence gene expression. mBio. Vol.5(4) 1-15

Antibiotic Resistant Streptococci
There are more than thirty different species of streptococcal bacteria. The infections that strep causes in humans range from "strep throat," which is caused by Group A strep and relatively easily treatable, to diseases such as pneumonia and serious wound infections, both of which can prove deadly.(1)

Antibiotics were first developed during World War II, and have saved many millions of human lives since then that would have been lost to streptococci infections and diseases. Penicillin alone was solely responsible for dramatically decreasing mortality rates of soldiers wounded on the battlefields of World War II compared to corresponding rates of World War I casualties.

The widespread use of penicillin and more modern antibiotics that have been developed since World War II has been accompanied by the natural evolution of some bacterial strains that are resistant to antibiotics. In many respects, the natural ability of bacteria to develop antibiotic resistant strains…...

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Bibliography

Hurst, L., Russell, S. Superbugs and nightmare scenarios: Resistance to antibiotics grows; Toronto Star (Aug. 3, 2002) Accessed at  http://www.vaccinationnews.com/DailyNews/August2002/Superbugs&Nightmares15.htm 

2. Lopez, T. Study: Drug-resistant infections increasing in U.S. hospitals www.solucient.com (August 5, 2003 Press Release) Accessed at http://www.solucient.com/news_press/news20030805.shtml

Srikameswaran, A. Higher rate of antibiotic resistance here puzzles researchers; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (February 18, 2004) Accessed at  http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04049/274463.stm 

4. Staphylococcal and streptococcal infections

prokaryotes consist of millions of genetically distinct unicellular organisms. A procaryotic cell has five essential structural components: a genome (DNA), ribosomes, cell membrane, cell wall, and some sort of surface layer which may or may not be an inherent part of the wall (1). Functional aspects of procaryotic cells are related directly to the structure and organization of the macromolecules in their cell make-up, i.e., DNA, RNA, phospholipids, proteins and polysaccharides. Diversity within the primary structure of these molecules accounts for the diversity that exists among procaryotes (1). Identifiable groups of prokaryotes are assembled based on easily observed phenotypic characteristics such as Gram stain, morphology (rods, cocci, etc.), motility, structural features (e.g. spores, filaments, sheaths, appendages, etc.), and on distinguishing physiological features (e.g. anoxygenic photosynthesis, anaerobiasis, methanogenesis, lithotrophy, etc.). Prokaryotes are commonly known as bacteria, and it is estimated that bacteria have been around for at least 3.5 billion…...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (2nd Edition). 1989. Williams, S.T., Sharpe, M.E., Holt J.G. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2. Breiman RF, Butler JC, Tenover FC, Elliott JA, Facklam RR. (1994). Emergence of drug-resistant pneumococcal infections in the United States. JAMA. 1994 Jun 15;271(23):1831-5.

3. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Antibiotic/Antimicrobial resistance.  http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/html/ 

4. Jones RN, Pfaller MA (1998). Bacterial resistance: a worldwide problem. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. Jun;31(2):379-88.

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
Cells can be divided into two categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells. This size difference is due to the many contents inside a eukaryotic cell that prokaryotic cells do not have. To begin with, prokaryotic cells are always going to be unicellular, while eukaryotic cells can also be unicellular but are many times multicellular (Murray & Baron, 2007). Prokaryotic cells do not have any membrane-bound organelles inside them, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, or lysosome as eukaryotic cells do. The DNA of eukaryotic cells is linear and is contained within the nucleus, while DNA in prokaryotic cells is circular and is contained within the nuclear body, a non-membrane surrounded structure (Murray & Baron, 2007). The number of ribosomes inside a prokaryotic cell is a lot less than those contained in a eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic ribosomes are about 70s while eukaryotic…...

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References:

Murray, Patrick R., and Ellen Jo. Baron. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: ASM, 2007. Print.

Nester, E., Anderson, D., & Roberts, C.E. (2012).Microbiology: A human perspective. (7th ed). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

It is commonly associated with Staphylococcus aureus (2011). "Studies have shown that 20% of all cases are caused by Candida albicans alone, 60% are caused by a combination of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans, and 20% are caused by Staphylococcus aureus alone" (2011).
Angular cheilitis can be found in any age group and can be diagnosed by an "erythematous, fissured area" (DH 2011) are the corners of the mouth. The tissue will appear wrinkled and a "superficial crust may be seen superimposed over the affected area" (2011). Accencuated folds in the corner area of the mouth on older individuals can be a great environment for Candida albicans to thrive (2011).

The reason Candida albicans is often misdiagnosed is because an overgrowth of Candida in the human body can cause more than 100 various symptoms related to Candidiasis, making it practically impossible to pin down (Candida Cure Zone 2011). To get an…...

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References

Candida Cure Zone. (2011). What is Candida? Candida Cure Zone. [Online]. Available: / [February 28, 2011]http://www.candidacurezone.com

Mayo Clinic. (2011). Oral thrush. Mayo Clinic. [Online]. Available:   [February 28, 2011]http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/oral-thrush/DS00408 

Laskaris, G. (2004). Treatment of Oral Diseases: A Concise Textbook. Thieme; 1st Edition.

RDH. (2011). Case #5: a 37-year-old male visited his family dentist for a prophy. During the oral exam, a white plaque was noted on the dorsal tongue. RDH. [Online]. Available:   [February 28, 2011]http://www.rdhmag.com/index/display/article-display/117421/articles/rdh/volume-18/issue-5/columns/case-study/case-5-a-37-year-old-male-visited-his-family-dentist-for-a-prophy-during-the-oral-exam-a-white-plaque-was-noted-on-the-dorsal-tongue.html 

1).
This teatment, albeit, does not poduce 100% chitosan, but basically poduces a mixtue of 10-15% chitin plus 85-90% pue chitosan, called "pue CC." In the U.S., chitosan constitutes a mixtue of appoximately7% chitin plus appoximately 93% chitosan. Outside of cost-effectiveness, the biological effects of chitin poduced fom each souce appeas identical. "Chitosan oligosacchaides (CO) takes chitosan a big step futhe," Matsunaga (2007 explains. "When CC is ingested, a small amount of it is boken down into vey small molecula paticles by the enzymes of the body, thus poducing CO. CO can also be manufactued by using an enzymatic pocess" (Matsunaga, as cited in Levine, p. 1). The body moe eadily absobs CO, although CO contains less fibe than egula CC.

In Case Histoy 1: Low Pulmonay (Lung) Function, Matsunaga (Levine, 2007) teats his fist patient, also his fathe, with the administation of CC. Pevious teatments had yielded no esults fo…...

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references and further reading you must purchase this article.

Lee, H., Park, Y., Jung, J. & Shin, W. (2003). Chitosan oligosaccharides, dp 2 -- 8, have prebiotic effect on the Bifidobacterium bifidium and Lactobacillus sp.

Elsevier Science Ltd. Retrieved November 2, 2009, from  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W9T-48BKR97 -

2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_search

StrId=1075134506&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersio

Vancomycin should be given for at least 60 minutes. The initial dosage for pediatrics with renal impairment is not less than 15 mg/kg per day or 15 times the GF in mL/min. Premature infants should have longer dosing intervals. PO administration should be 40 mg/kg/day in 3-4 divided doses for 7-10 days. The maximum is 2,000 mg/day, which may be diluted in 1 oz of water or administered through an NG tube (PD).
Contraindications

Vancomycin is contraindicated to patients with hypersensitivity to vancomycin (Drug.com, 2012). Commercially prepared frozen Vancomycyn Hydrochloride injections in 5% dextrose may also be contraindicated to those with known allergic reaction to corn or corn products (Drug.com).

Drug-Drug Interactions

The patient should inform the doctor or pharmacist of all prescription and non-prescription or herbal products currently used (Medicine Net, 2012; Levinson, 2012). Aminoglycosides, amphotericin B, other antibiotics, and live bacterial vaccines are special mentions. If treatment requires anesthesia, the doctor…...

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Reference: PDR Network LLC.

Retrieved on April 20, 2012 from  http://www.pdr.net/drugpages/concisemonograph.aspx?concise=688

esponsibilities as an external consultant to a contract manufacturing organization (CMO)
esearch in the field of medicine has contributed to changes in administration of dosage. Initially some administration routes for drugs are considered more convenient than other methods. However this relies and depends on the benefits and shortcomings of the drug administration route. The paper discusses on the possible and the convenient drug administration routes to apply in CMO. The paper also discusses on the methods to improve the physical stability and product chemical in the dosage for CMO

outes of administration for biological medicinal products

Different routes of administration can be applied for biological medicinal products and generally for contract manufacturing organization (CMO). For instance, enteral, parenteral, and transdermal are the common broad routes of medicinal administration.

Hypodermoclysis administration route

Hypodermoclysis administration route is whereby the dosage is in fluid form and can be referred to as subcutaneous infusion or interstitial infusion. In…...

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References

Adikwu, M.U., & Esimone, C.O. 2009. Biopolymers in drug delivery recent advances and challenges. [Saif Zone, Sharjah, U.A.E.], Bentham eBooks.

Arcangelo, V.P., & Peterson, A.M. 2005. Pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice: A

practical approach. Philadelphia, PA [u.a.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Gillespie, J.R., & Flanders, F.B. 2010. Modern livestock and poultry production. Australia,

Antibacterial assessment of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from Euphorbia shows promising results as a potential alternative for combating bacterial infections. Euphorbia is a plant known for its medicinal properties and has been found to have antibacterial effects. By utilizing silver nanoparticles synthesized from Euphorbia, researchers have been able to enhance the antibacterial properties of the plant.
In a study by Singh et al. (2018), silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from Euphorbia were tested against various bacterial strains, including Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The results showed that the nanoparticles exhibited strong antibacterial activity, inhibiting the growth of the bacteria effectively. This suggests that silver....