Performance in Sports
Attribution theory posits that ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck are the major attributional factors that cause success and failure in sport. Effort is considered an internal factor while task difficulty is considered an external factor. Ability is considered a permanent factor while luck is a changeable factor. The reformulated learned helplessness model sought to come up with the most relevant causal dimensions. The model suggests that the specificity of attributions combines with causal internality and stability to influence emotions and behavior. The model avers that global factors influence events like laziness while specific factors influence particular events like temporary fatigue. Adaptive reactions, according to helplessness theory, are occasioned by negative outcomes that are attributed to external, unstable, and specific factors. Adaptive reactions can also be facilitated when positive outcomes are attributed to internal, stable, and global factors. Outcomes that suggest that an athlete has high ability have…...

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References List

Aldridge, L.J. & Islam, M.R. (2011). Cultural Differences in Athlete Attributions for Success

and Failure: The Sports Pages Revisited. International Journal of Psychology, 47(1), 67-75.

Allen, M.S., Jones, M.V., & Sheffield, D., (2009). Attribution, Emotion, and Collective Efficacy

in Sports Teams. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 13(3), 205-217.

Flow States and Sport Performance
The attention of an individual focus on the movements of the body, power of the muscles, force of the lungs, and the strength beneath the feet in the context of running a race,. This is an indication that an individual is living in the moment utterly absorbed in the present activity. It is essential to note that time seems to fall away. According to the description by the positive psychologists, the encounter or experience during the running process is known as the flow. It is vital to note that the flow refers to the state of complete immersion in an activity. The mental state of the flow relates to the ability of an individual to be involved in the activity for its own sake.

Understanding the Psychology of the Flow

It is ideal to note that people experience diverse or different flow states. Some might have the ability…...

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References

Cowen, L.W. (2004). What Is Hypnosis? Journal of The Australian Traditional-Medicine

Society, 10(3), 105-107.

Faymonville, M., Boly, M., & Laureys, S. (2006). Functional neuroanatomy of the hypnotic state. Journal Of Physiology (09284257), 99(4-6), 463-469.

Ferrell, M.D., Beach, R.L., Szeverenyi, N.M., Krch, M., & Fernhall, B. (2006). An fMRI

SUCCESS & AILURE IN SPORT PERORMANCE
Sports can be attributed to drastic changes of emotions and expectations by sports fans from their favourite teams or players, based on their performances. These performeances represent the strength, capability and potential of a sportsman or a team. Sports is one of those things where it is almost inevitable to get a result where there is a victor and loser. Sports can be understood as a non-lethal, healthy combat or duel amongst two sportsmen or teams who fight for awards, honours or even bragging rights over each other. This makes the notions of success and failure an integral function of the nature of sports. Through this paper, it is targeted to carry out a thorough analysis and understand the various reasons for which the success and failure in sports performances are witnessed by sportmen and fans. This discussion would aid in determining and developing the…...

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For sport achievement, a greater influence might be exerted on subsequent attributions and effort related to sport may be more quantifiable and salient. In sport behavior, the abilities related to the cardiovascular fitness and strength is fluctuating over time and unstable, in accordance to the analysis of the sport situation. In intellectual tasks, it was perceived that the ability attributions for failure were precluded by the motivational bias, however in sport tasks, the motivational bias will be reduced in attributions for failure (Rejeski & Lowe, 1980). For failure outcomes in sport, this will result in an increase in perceived personal responsibility.

In compare to intellectual tasks, the perception of effort levels must be more quantitative in sport tasks. In compare to attributions for academic achievement, the epistemological status of effort and ability might be different for sport achievement. In sport settings, the relationship between task difficulty and the outcome might be mediated by the effort information suggested by the significant effort obtained on task difficulty by outcome interaction (Allen & Et.al, 2009). In sport tasks, the effort information is both more quantifiable and more phenomenally salient.

A fundamental role is played by causal ascriptions in the proposed theory about emotion and motivation. Few dominant causal perceptions are found in contexts related to achievement. With globality and intentionality as other possible causal structures, controllability, stability and locus are the three common properties that have been shared by the perceived causes of failure and success (Weiner, 1985). Shame, pride, hopelessness, gratitude, pity, guilt and anger are the variety of general emotional experiences that affect all three dimensions of causality. In expectancy of

Similar sport-specific performance improvement was found in the earlier study conducted by Smith, Wright, Allsopp, and Westhead (2007).
Smith, Wright, Allsopp, and Westhead (2007) compared the effects of PETTLEP-based imagery against the improvements found with the use of traditional imagery, in hockey players and gymnasts. In the first study, 48 varsity hockey players were divided into four groups. These groups included: 'sport-specific' imagery, 'clothing' imagery, 'traditional' imagery, and a control group. Following a six-week period, the sport-specific group saw the most improvement in penalty flicks. Other than the control group, the traditional imagery group experienced the least amount of improvement. The author's second study featured 40 junior gymnasts. These participants were divided into four groups that included: PETTLEP, stimulus only imagery, physical practice, and a control group. As was found in both Wright and Smith's (2009) and Smith, Wright, and Cantwell's (2008) research, there was significant improvement in both the…...

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References

Holmes, P. & Collins, D. (Mar 2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13(1). pp. 60-83.

Smith, D., Wright, C., Allsopp, A., & Westhead, H. (Jan 2007). It's all in the mind: PETTLEP-based imagery and sports performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psycholgoy, 19(1). pp. 80-92.

Smith, D., Wright, C., & Cantwell, C. (Sep 2008). Beating the bunker: The effect of PETTLEP imagery on golf bunker shot performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(3). Retrieved June 5, 2009, from ProQuest.

Wright, C. & Smith, D. (Mar 2009). The effect of PETTLEP imagery on strength performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psycholgoy, 7(1). Retrieved June 5, 2009, from General OneFile.

The research suggests that sport psychology is useful to athletes because it provides them with the tools needed to fully exploit their physical talents by controlling their mental processes. The research found that here are several techniques associated with sports psychology. These techniques include MPSE, thought stopping, mental rehearsal (imagery) self-talk, visuo-motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) and establishing goals. All of these techniques can be used to assist the athlete in focusing on the goal that they are attempting to accomplish.
orks Cited

Arvinen-Barrow M., Penny G.,Hemmings B., Corr S. (2010) UK chartered physiotherapists' personal experiences in using psychological interventions with injured athletes: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 11 (2010) 58 -- 66

"Careers in Sports Psychology." Retrieved February 16, 2010 from: http://www.wcupa.edu/_Academics/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/Sports/Career07.htm

De Petrillo, L.A., Kaufman, K.A. Glass, C.R. And Arnkoff D.B. (2009) Mindfulness for Long-Distance Runners: An Open Trial Using Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE). Journal of Clinical…...

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Works Cited

Arvinen-Barrow M., Penny G.,Hemmings B., Corr S. (2010) UK chartered physiotherapists' personal experiences in using psychological interventions with injured athletes: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 11 (2010) 58 -- 66

"Careers in Sports Psychology." Retrieved February 16, 2010 from:  http://www.wcupa.edu/_Academics/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/Sports/Career07.htm 

De Petrillo, L.A., Kaufman, K.A. Glass, C.R. And Arnkoff D.B. (2009) Mindfulness for Long-Distance Runners: An Open Trial Using Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE). Journal of Clinical Sports Psychology, 2009, 4, 357-376

Dreyer, D. (2004). ChiRunning: A revolutionary approach to effortless, injury-free running. Retrieved February 16, 2009 from: http://www.chirunning.com .

Matt gave Ed two eggs on toast with half-a-grapefruit and orange juice for breakfast (Independent on Sunday, 2002). Ed took fish oils and multivitamins on a daily basis. These were immediately followed by a good fiber and protein meal in minutes or strength during his warm-up sessions. Matt gave Stu chicken, basmati rice, couscous and egg and Jaffa cakes for his "insulin." Matt's intention was to bring extra protein straight into Stu's tired muscles. He also served Stu with nuts for his snacks (Independent on Sunday).

Commercial high-carbohydrate electrolyte sports drinks fill the football player's need, especially within the first 15 minutes after strenuous activity. These drinks also appeal more than plain water while contributing their value (Mannie, 2001).

ILIOGRAPHY

usiness Wire (2004). 3-a-day dairy teams up with national football league to tackle kids' nutrition and fitness in schools. usiness Wire: Gale, Cengage Learning.

Retrieved on April 4, 2009 from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOEIN/is_2004_Sept_8/ai_n6185691/?tag=content;col1

Independent on Sunday (2002).…...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Business Wire (2004). 3-a-day dairy teams up with national football league to tackle kids' nutrition and fitness in schools. Business Wire: Gale, Cengage Learning.

Retrieved on April 4, 2009 from  http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOEIN/is_2004_Sept_8/ai_n6185691/?tag=content;col1 

Independent on Sunday (2002). The programme. Independent Newspapers UK Limited

ProQuest Information and Learning Company. Retrieved on April 4, 2009 from  http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_20020922/ai_n1266483/?tag=content;col1

Drugs and sports [...] performance-Enhancing drugs, and their effect on athletes and the sports they play.
Athletes who use performance-enhancing drugs compromise the integrity of their sports for a number of reasons. First, there is the issue of the records they set. For example, Barry Bonds has set numerous home run records, including hitting more than Hank Aaron. However, now these records are suspect, because of his use of these drugs. He might not have set these records without the help of the drugs. In addition, baseball is doing very little, if anything, to punish the players who are using drugs, so there is little incentive for them to stop. It makes the players look bad, it makes the sport look bad, and it makes the entire sport suspect, because fans can no longer trust that their favorite players are not enhancing their performance not with hard work and dedication,…...

Prizes have always been a part of contests, a tradition that can be traced back for centuries. In Homer's the Iliad, Achilles hosts a contest in honor of the fallen Patroclus, "The first prize he offered was for the Chariot races -- a woman skilled in all the useful arts, and a three legged cauldron that had ears for handles, and would hold twenty two measures. This was for the man who came first," (Iliad).
Modern day athletes continue to receive prizes for their successes. They receive monetary compensation through endorsements and contracts for their participation in professional programs. The compensation is much more than a useful woman and a cauldron in recent times. The 2006 Top National Football League salaries reached insane heights. According to USAToday.com, Richard Seymour from the NFL Patriots earned a whopping $24,691,160. Another New England Patriot who is a household name thanks to his quarter…...

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Works Cited

Homer. The Iliad. Book xxiii. Found at:   On Friday September 21, 2007.http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.23.xxiii.html .

Murphy, Arthur. The Works of Cornelius Tacticus with Essay on His Life and Genius.

Oxford University Press. 1935.

Shakespeare, William. Troilus and Cressida. Penguin Books. New York. 2000.

Athletics and Academics
In the current economic climate of the United States, public institutions are finding themselves having to make harsher and harsher budget cuts. Teaching positions are minimized, class sizes are increased, and fees are rising to nearly unaffordable regions. The English Department at a certain university or high school may drop from twenty-five professors to a dozen or so. It is the harsh reality of living in an era of economic downturn. However, even as the college school would lose more and more financial assistance from the government, athletic programs at schools continue to expand and provide more and more incentives for prospective recruits. This is symptomatic of a flawed philosophy in college institutions: the ability to perform athletic skills has more importance than the ability to think. This perspective not only jades the graduating classes but teaches the wrong principles for when a student needs to learn to…...

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Works Cited:

Larimore, David (2007). "Non-Economic Societal Impacts of Intercollegiate Athletics." The

Sport Journal. United States Sports Academy.

Meier, K.J., Eller, W.S., Marchbanks III, M.P., Robinson, S., Polinard, J.L., Wrinkle, R.D.

(2004). "A Lingering Question of Priorities: Athletic Budgets and Academic Performance Revisited. Review of Policy Research," 21(6), 799 -- 807. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

One of the most pressing problems with the doping incidents is that punishment is so lax in many arenas. The WADA recommends a two-year ban from the sport, but increasing the time could reduce the number of doping incidents. An athlete might be less likely to turn to performance enhancing drugs of any kind if they knew they could face a ban for life, or a five-year or more ban from their chosen sport. Laws regarding the use of banned substances should be reviewed and updated so they are the same for each sport, and so they increase the culpability of the players involved. Since many of these athletes serve as heroes and role models to the children of the world, they owe it to them to come clean, stay clean, and support stricter enforcement in their specific sports. Lance Armstrong, in his comeback maneuver, could serve as a…...

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References

Editors. "Anti-Doping Expert Promises to Test Armstrong for 'Everything'." ESPN.com. 2008. 26 Sept. 2008.

 http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/cycling/news/story?id=3609575 

Murphy, Austin. "Armstrong Returns With a New Team and a Winning Cause." Sports Illustrated.com. Sept. 2008, 26 Sept. 2008.

http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/writers/austin_murphy/09/25/lance-armstrong-return/index.html.

But despite these strides, the negative as well as the positive legacy of sports in American culture cannot be ignored.
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Douglas, Scott. (2005). unning through Kenya. Slate.com. etrieved September 20, 2010 at http://www.slate.com/id/2117122/entry/2117123/

Gettleman, Elizabeth. (2006, July). eview of William C. hoden's Forty Million Dollar Slaves.

Mother Jones. etrieved September 20, 2010 at http://motherjones.com/media/2006/07/forty-million-dollar-slaves

Johnson, Jenna. (2010). NCAA graduation rates. The Washington Post. etrieved September 20,

2010 at http://voices.washingtonpost.com/campus-overload/2010/03/another_ncaa_bracket_player_gr.html

Lehrer, Jonah. (2010, August 24). How to raise a superstar. Wired Science. etrieved September 20, 2010 at http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/08/how-to-raise-a-superstar/#ixzz107NwUSGh

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2010 at http://www.marathonguide.com/history/olympicmarathons/chapter25.cfm

Williams, Kam. (2006). eview of William C. hoden's Forty Million Dollar Slaves. AALBC.

etrieved September 20, 2010 at http://aalbc.com/reviews/forty_million_dollar_slaves.htm

Witt, Jon. (2006). The big picture. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Youth sports pushing kids, parents too far. (2010,…...

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References

About Title IX. (2010). University of Iowa. Retrieved September 20, 2010 at  http://bailiwick.lib.uiowa.edu/ge/aboutRE.html 

Douglas, Scott. (2005). Running through Kenya. Slate.com. Retrieved September 20, 2010 at  http://www.slate.com/id/2117122/entry/2117123/ 

Gettleman, Elizabeth. (2006, July). Review of William C. Rhoden's Forty Million Dollar Slaves.

Mother Jones. Retrieved September 20, 2010 at  http://motherjones.com/media/2006/07/forty-million-dollar-slaves

In many cases, the sports that are largely ignored in the U.S. are equally deserving of national exposure and coverage, because they demand the same level of natural talent, skill, and expertise as those high-profile sports that enjoy extensive national coverage.
Especially in the wake of recent revelations and scandals arising in the major American sports involving use of steroids, violent assaults on women, driving under the influence of alcohol, and federal convictions for those types of crimes as well as for cruelty to animals have undermined the traditional reputation of professional athletes as role models in modern American society. To date, no such controversies have plagued any of the lesser-appreciated sports in the U.S. In that regard, surfing in particular is associated with health, vitality, and natural physical fitness that is not at all likely to fall prey to illegal or performance-enhancing drug use in the sport. Furthermore, unlike…...

Sport Stadium Risk Assessment
Sport venue management face challenges in determining the level of a potential threat (Hall). Risk must be identified, measured, and evaluated to be effectively managed. It should include assessments for threats, vulnerabilities, and criticalities for information that helps to protect critical assets, physical and human, against terrorist attacks and other threats, such as fan behavior that can cause harm to others or physical assets. Protection measures can include access control, use of CCTV security cameras, adding lighting, performance of background checks, credentialing, checking backpacks, enhancing communication networks, as well as developing and updating emergency response and evacuation plans.

There are three types of risks that need to be assessed. Mission risk prevents the organization from accomplishing goals and missions. Asset risk can harm physical assets. And, security risks can potentially cripple actual data and people. These risks are identified by surveys, inspections, employee interviews, and the involvement of…...

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Bibliography

Hall, S., Marciani, L. Cooper, W.E., & Rolen, R. "Introducing a Risk Assessment Model for Sport Venues." The Sport Journal, 10(2), ISSN: 1543-9518 (2007). Retrieved from  http://www.thesportjournal.org/article/introducing-risk-assessment-model-sport-venues .

Hall, S., Marciani, L., & Cooper, W. "Sport Venue Security: Planning and Preparedness for Terrorists-related incidents." The Smart Journal, 4(2) (Spring/Summer 2008). Retrieved from  http://www.thesmartjournal.com/venues.pdf .

References

Elliot, D.L., Moe, E.L., Goldberg, L., Defrancesco, C.A., Durham, M.B., & Hix-mall, H. (2006). Definition and Outcome of a Curriculum to Prevent Disordered Eating and Body haping Drug Use. Journal of chool Health, 76(2), 67+. Retrieved February 15, 2009, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5028537762

Maletto, Pete. (2008, October 1). ports nutrition: past, present and future: in order to understand where this market is headed it's important to know where it's been. Nutraceuticals World. Rodman Publications, Inc. Retrieved February 14, 2009 from HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-188444472.html

Ray, Tracy R., & Fowler, Rachel. (2004, eptember 1). Current issues in sports nutrition in athletes. outhern Medical Journal. outhern Medical Association. 2004. Retrieved February 14, 2009 from HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1123332696.html

haw, Greg, Cox, Greg, & Barnard. Janelle. (2007). ports nutrition: case studies 2. Nutrition & Dietetics: The Journal of the DietitiansAssociation of Australia. Dietitians Association of Australia. Retrieved February 15, 2009 from HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-165578876.html

ports nutrition vital for athletes.(2005,…...

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Sports nutrition vital for athletes.(2005, May 15). New Straits Times. Retrieved February 14, 2009 from HighBeam Research:  http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-108754539.html 

Tallon, Mark J. (2007, November 1). Enzymes' new potential in an emerging wellness market. Functional Ingredients. Penton Media OH & IL. Retrieved February 15, 2009 from HighBeam Research:  http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1399950491.html 

2008, March 1). Sports nutrition goes natural. Functional Ingredients. Penton Media OH & IL. Retrieved February 14, 2009 from HighBeam Research:  http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P31456902041.html

This mechanism will ultimately save the firm money as it is more efficient with its resources. More important however, feedback insures that the strategic planning process remains focused on the metrics of success rather than diverging from its intended purpose. Sporting organizations need focus in order to maintain their funding constituency. This comes in the form of ticket, merchandise, and television ad sales.
Furthermore, performance measures are important in regards to the overall benchmarking process. Performance measures provide a means of evaluation of both personnel and the strategic plan itself. With these measures of success management can better identify performance relative to strategic planning benchmarks. Also, through the use of performance measures, coupled with appropriate feedback mechanisms management can better ascertain initiatives. If performance is a substantial departure from management standards, organizational leaders can better determine what areas need improvement and coach to those specific areas. Through performance measures, management…...

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References:

1) Martin, D.C. & Bartol, K.M. (1998). Performance appraisal: Maintaining system effectiveness. Public Personnel Management, 27(2), 223-230.

2) Schweitzer, ME., Ordonez, L., & Douma, B. (2004) Goal setting as a motivator of unethical behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 47, 422-432