Social Cognitive Theory and Stress Management
Social cognitive theory hypothesizes that people learn through observation: by examining their environment and seeing the behavior of others, people can then determine for themselves how best to adjust their behavior. Health educators and instructional designers often incorporate social cognitive theory into training when a learning outcome is behavioral change (Baranowski, Perry, & Parcel, 2002).

Since the late 1990s, studies increasingly have addressed the impact of stress on health (Brown & Vanable, 2008), and stress management is one area of health education that may benefit from a social cognitive approach.

This essay reviews examples of social cognitive learning being used in health education and examines the pros and cons of applying this theory to training in stress management.

Practical Examples of Social Cognitive Theory

One review of stress management courses for people living with HIV found a range of social cognitive-based training components, including exercises for encouraging self-driven problem-solving…...

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References

Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education and Behavior, 31(143), 143-164. doi:10.1177/1090198104263660

Baranowski, T., Perry, C.L., & Parcel, G.S. (2002). How individuals, environments, and health behavior interact: Social cognitive theory. In K. Glanz., B.K. Rimer, & F.M. Lewis (Eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice (3rd ed.). (pp. 165-183). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brown, J.L., & Vanable, P.A. (2008). Cognitive-behavioral stress management interventions for persons living with HIV: A review and critique of the literature. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 35(1), 26-40. Retrieved from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/ppmc/articles/PMC2435192/

The individual component of personal identity is represented in the older, early acquired traits (Cerulo, 1997).
In a given time and social situation, certain components of personality are mobilized in action, while other components are temporarily subordinated. With a change in time and group situation, a shift of emotional integration occurs with a corresponding shift of integration into another social role; that is, other components of the self are moved into a dominant position in preparation for a particular type of social participation. This is the essence of the process of social adaptation. In this process, the individual may react to social pressure with compliance, protest, or withdrawal (Cerulo, 1997).

Being able to identify potential reactions in given situations is helpful both to the client and to the therapist. By understanding the learning process that occurs when an individual interacts with others and either adopts or rejects their behaviors, both self-assessment…...

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References

Bandura a. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Cerulo, Karen a. (1997). Identity construction: New issues, new directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 385-409.

Kumpulainen, K. & Wray, D. (2002) Classroom interaction and social learning: from theory to practice. London: Routledge.

Moretti, M.M. (2004) Integrating the psychodynamic and cognitive selves. Psychological Inquiry, 3(1) 47-62.

Social Cognitive Theory
THE CLASSROOM AS A SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

Major Components and Theorists

This theory is a concept or view, which focuses on learning by observing others (Hurst, 2014). It has three major components or assumptions. The first is that learners can obtain new knowledge or learn new behaviors by observing a model. A model is someone who shows a certain behavior or transmits knowledge to another or others. The second assumption or component is that leaning is an inner process, which can result in a behavior or not result in it. The new learning may be processed but not occur until another time. The third is the acquisition of goal-directed behavior. This assumption states that people fix their own goals and adjust their behavior according to these goals. Motivation leads them to fulfill these goals. The next assumption is the eventual self-regulation of the learned behavior by observing models, improving and perfecting…...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clark, R. And Hamelson, G.L. (2002). Designing instruction that supports cognitive learning processes. Vol. 37, Journal of Athletic Training, PubMed. Retrieved on December 13, 2014 from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC164417 

Giles, E., et al. (2014).multiple intelligence and learning styles. Creative Commons

Attributions. Retrieved on December 13, 2014 from http://www.ltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=Multiple_Intelligences_and_Learning_Styles#Learning_Styles

Hurst, M. (2014). Social cognitive learning: definition and examples. Education Portal:

Teaching methods tend to be highly structured and teacher directed. Bandura's theory suggests an alternative form of classroom practice with respect to fostering student agentic self-regulation. Under typical developmental conditions young children acquire rudimentary agentic capability through everyday participation in sociocultural events and contexts. The development of agentic self-regulation by students can be developed through active engagement within richly furnished curricular settings with the support of teachers who encourage student risk taking and active, self-directed experimentation with alternative possibilities. The teacher becomes a facilitator of learning instead of a dispenser of knowledge.

Social Cognitive Theory and Choice Theory: A Compatibility Analysis, by Yvonne Malone

This paper is an examination of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and William Glasser's Choice Theory (CT). The concurrent theme of both these theories is that individuals are active participants in their own development. SCT contends that learning is accomplished by vicarious reinforcement, symbolic activities, forethought activity, self-regulatory…...

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References

Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Asian journal of social psyshology,2(1), Retrieved July 11, 2010, from Academic Search Premier database  http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&hid=109&sid=c8c83cd3-a0b1=49e0=8871-dffd0904343fd%40sessionmgr104 

Malone, Y. (2002). Social cognative therory and choice theory: A compatablity analysis. International journal ofreality theropy.Vol. XXII, No. 1, 10-15. Retrieved July 11, 2010, from  http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=10&hid=1112&sid=78cbb354-63f2=4afl-bd6b-0bad71c31dd6%40sessionmgr110 

Martin, J. (2004). Self-regulated learning, social cognative theroy, and agency. Educational psycholoigst, 39(2), 135-145. Lawrence Erilbaum Associates, Inc. Retrieved July 11, 2010, from  http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=5&hid=106&sid=429b1e1d-4fa8-46f1-b702-7037d2b25bba%40sessionmgr111

Self-egulation

Bandura understands that the development of self is influenced by the environment but that the individual also has significant responsibility of determinism that makes the individual responsible for his or her behaviors. According to Boeree self-regulation is absolutely essential to behavior control and provides the backbone of human personality. Boeree describes the three steps that Bandura suggests that contribute to self-regulation; self-observation, or the process of observing our own behavior and then keeping track of it, judgment, or the comparisons we draw between our own behavior and that of the socially acceptable performance standards of our culture and environment, and self-response where we reward or sanction ourselves based on this perception of standards as compared to our own behavior. How one performs on this perceptive scale over the long-term forms the sense of self, i.e. If one generally perform well on this scale and receives much self-reward then he or…...

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References

Bandura, a. (2006). Albert Bandura Cirriculum Vita.  http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/BanduraCV.pdf .

Bandura, a. (2006). Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales. In F. Pajares, & T.C. Urdan, Self-efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents (pp. 307-337). Infromation Age Publishing.

Bandura, a. (1993). Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28 (2), 117-148.

Bandura, a. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.

Although the teacher is the authority figure and the rules are clearly established, the students are allowed to voice their opinions. This setting creates the best learning environment because the children know their boundaries but are able to participate in the decision-making process. In addition, the teacher can improve instruction by generating feedback about lesson delivery and instructional techniques from his or her students.
Question 3: Assessment

Standardized testing is a major issue in education today. According to Chen (2009), this problem will not be going away any time soon. Under President Bush and the No Child Left Behind act, teachers were required to give their students standardized testing in specific subject areas. Many of Obama's supporters had hoped that he would rescind the act. Instead, President Obama has indicated that state governors must "pledge to improve the quality of standardized tests and raise standards" (Chen 2009).

Some advocates of standardized testing…...

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References

Bandura, a. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Stanford University. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from  http://des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura1991OBHDP.pdf 

Chen, G. (2009, April 23). Will public school students soon be taking more standardized tests? Public School Review. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from  http://www.publicschoolreview.com/articles/98 

Fair Test: The National Center for Fair and Open Testing. (2007, August 28). How standardized testing damages education. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from  http://www.fairtest.org/how-standardized-testing-damages-education-pdf 

Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from,  http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/infoproc.html

Indeed, his model includes the entire range of human experience and its effect upon behavior, while at the same time explicating it without being excessively confusing.
To accomplish this is a rare feat indeed. Bandura appears to have accomplished the difficult task of explaining the complex nature of human behavior in a non-complex way. This is what makes his theory so fascinating. It shows the reader the different aspects of human behavior as well as the various elements that can influence it. At the core of the theory lies the understanding that human behavior is affected by both external and internal factors, and how these interact with each other.

Having read the article and the various aspects of the theory, it is therefore not surprising to find at the end that the theory has many useful applications in the healthcare field, and in particular in studying how children develop....

Social Cognitive, Behavioral Drinking
Social Cognitive/behavioralist Drinking

Drinking behavior provides informative demonstration of how social cognitive and behavioralist theories provide complementary rather than competing explanations of human agency. Bandura (1999) casts social cognitive theory against various determinist and materialist theories on the assertion humans are "sentient agents of experiences rather than simply undergoers of experiences" because people explore, manipulate and influence the environment they discover (p. 4). This contrasts against "automaticity," habit, "tendencies to repeat responses given a stable supporting context" (Oullette and Wood, 1998, p. 55). Oullette & Wood (1998) compare habit learning to skill development, where practice can lead to "nonvolitional, frequent, and consistent experiences in a given context" but new situations require deliberation (p. 55). Wood and Neal (2007) largely reiterate this summary as repeated learned behavior (843). The present inquiry is particularly interested in how and why particular behaviors become repeated after negative consequences have been demonstrated possible,…...

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References

Bandura, A. (1999). A social cognitive theory of personality. In L. Pervin & O. John (Ed.),

Handbook of personality (2nd ed., pp. 154-196). New York: Guilford Publications. (Reprinted in D. Cervone & Y. Shoda [Eds.], The coherence of personality. New York: Guilford Press.)

Ouellette, J. & Wood, W. (1998). Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior. Psychological Bulletin 124(1), 54-74.

Wood, w. & Neal, D.T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit -- goal interface. Psychological Review 114(4), 843 -- 863. Retrieved from DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.843

Social Cognitive Theory
First promoted by Albert Bandura, the principles of social-cognitive theory stemmed from the social learning theory, both of which can be blanketed under behaviorism. Based on the principle that people are motivated primarily by reward or punishment, social-cognitive theory builds upon the basic tenets of behaviorism by focusing on the ways individuals learn by observing others and modeling their behavior. Therefore, social-cognitive theory suggests that both human cognition and social interaction play key roles in the stimulus-response process.

Social-cognitive theory offers a well-rounded approach to basic behaviorism and can be a useful approach to understanding individual and group behaviors. Moreover, social-cognitive theory can help researchers postulate motivations for certain behaviors. The theory is useful in helping psychologists understand how to promote behavioral change in their clients. The theory is therefore useful in both clinical and counseling psychology, as it has potential uses for research as well as practical applications.…...

It thus becomes the concern of CT researchers and clinicians to address and investigate sex differences as an aspect in depression and to confront how they understand and treat women, who comprise 2/3 of clients. A feminist framework may be adopted for a more comprehensive and sensitive approach to the problem in order to benefit the large group of women clients. The new understanding must also be incorporated into the mainstream of cognitive writings and practice and treated as only a special interest topic (Hurst).
Cognitive behavior therapy, based on the five foregoing studies, has shown important gains greater than traditional counseling approach, but needs follow-up work. It has also demonstrated efficacy in producing lower relapse rate than the standard clinical treatment. The discourse approach to the negative self-perception of depressed patients has showed limitations as a technique. ut it can be useful in reducing symptoms among injection drug users.…...

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Bibliography

1. Brown, KM. (1999). Social Cognitive Theory. University of South Florida. http://www.med.usf.edu/~kmbrown/Social_Cognitive_Theory_Overview.htm

2. Dobson, K.S. And Drew, M.L. (1999). Negative Self-Concept in Clinical Diagnosis. Canadian Psychology. Canadian Psychological Association.

3. Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology. (2001). Depression. Encyclopedia of Psychology.  http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_q2699/is_0004/ai_2699000439 

4. Hawkins, W.E. (2005). Depression Therapy with Injection Drug Users. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse.

This is because they are both considered as constructivists whose approach to learning and teaching is based on the link between mental construction and cognitive development. On the stages of development from birth through adolescence, the two theorists propose that boundaries of cognitive development are determined by societal influences.
Piaget explains the ability of societal factors to influence a child's cognitive development through the sensorimotor, pre-operational and concrete operational stages. In his explanations of these stages, Piaget states that intelligence is demonstrated through symbols, which are obtained from societal influences. On the other hand, Vygotsky believes that societal influences especially cultural tools have a significant effect on cognitive development since they can be passed from one person to another. Cognitive development cannot be separated from the societal influences and include imitative learning, instructed learning and collaborative learning. In possible classroom applications, the views of both Piaget and Vygotsky on cognitive…...

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References:

Gallagher, C. (1999, May). Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from  http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/vygotsky.htm 

Huitt, W. & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from  http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/piaget.html 

"Social Development Theory (L. Vygotsky). (n.d.). The Theory Into Practice Database.

Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html

The participants should be able to rate their performance both in the experimental situation involving a small audience and in that involving a large audience.
This is also a measure of their self-efficacy prior to exposure to the audiences. The purpose of this act is to see whether the change in their self-evaluation is due to exposure to the audiences. The self-evaluation is done by using a self-administered questionnaire. The second stage is the exposure to the two types of audience. After performing in front of the two types of audiences, the group of gymnasts is asked to rate themselves using the same self-administered questionnaire. Using the subjects' self-evaluation it is possible to identify the changes. And by taking into consideration the changes it would be possible to decide whether the size of the audience had any impact on the performance. However, in such a study it is possible to…...

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References

Presence of others, Retrieved at http://myclassonline.com/pub/content/ad080d01

Lambert, a.J., Payne, B.K., Jacoby, L.L., Shaffer L.M., Chasteen, a. (2003) Stereotypes as Dominant Responses: On the "Social Facilitation" of Prejudice in Anticipated Public Contexts, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 84, No. 2, 277-295

Social Facilitation, Retrieved at  http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_facilitation.htm

Both types of reflection are ways to restructure cognition. Dynamic reflection focuses on problems and problem solving, while existential reflection seeks to discover meaning in life. In either case, the helper's role is to facilitate the reflection process.
Congruence with Social Work Values and Ethics

To determine the congruence between cognitive therapy and social work values and ethics, the writer consulted the National Association of Social Worker's (NASW) Code of Ethics (NASW, 2008). NASW's ethical principles are based on its six core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence. The overriding purpose of cognitive therapy is service to the client -- helping her identify, challenge, and change the cognitive misconceptions that result in unhealthy emotions and dysfunctional behavior. Perhaps the most obvious congruence is between the values of dignity and worth of the person and social justice. The former is…...

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References

Lantz, J. (2007). Cognitive theory and social work treatment. In M. Mattaini & C. Lowery (Eds.), Foundations of social work practice: a graduate text (4th ed.), 94-115. Washington D.C. NASW Press.

National Association of Social Workers. (2008). Code of ethics of the National Association of Social Workers. Retrieved from  http://www.socialworkers.org/pub/code/code.asp .

The GEMS effort was to create a social environment that encouraged healthy eating and exercise, and expanded health literacy in a fun manner, and was accessible to young girls.
It is easier to change health-related behaviors in the young, and the program tried to address the unique and often more acute problem of obesity in African-American young girls. The entire community and family units were incorporated into the program effort. Positive aspects of the African-American community, such as strong social support, were used by the study designers, also in line with social cognition theory. Existing support structures and social learning were combined: for example, the families in question were often not educated in how to properly read food labels, but once they were, the desire to help their daughters become healthier would hopefully reinforce the need to engage in proactive steps to improve dietary health. During Family Nights, families of…...

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References

Marvella E. Ford, Barbara C. Tilley, & Patricia E. McDonald. (1998). Social support among

African- American adults with diabetes. Journal of American Medicine. 90 (6) 361-365.

Retrieved July 9, 2010 at  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568240/pdf/jnma00165-0047.pdf 

Story, Mary, et al. (2003, Winter). "An after-school obesity prevention program for African-

The stopping of treatment is the primary reason for this early intervention. This tactic has been extremely successful for many years and should be
Once the induction interviews are complete, the client and the social worker can move on to treating the patient. Once the treatment has started it is vitally important that the social worker pay careful attention to eliminating communication patterns that are counterproductive. Social workers have to be careful not to get stuck in unproductive type of communication that serve no purpose and do nothing to assist the client.

In addition if a social worker must examine the family functioning and diverse family and cultural contexts. This simply means that the social worker is responsible for examining the home situation of the client and assisting the client based on this environment. There are several different family structures that may be present including single family homes, blended families and…...

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Works Cited

Glossary. Retrieved November 24, 2009 from: http: / / www. cmpmhmr. cog.pa.us / glossary.html

Hardcastle, David A. (2004) Community Practice: Theories and Skills for Social Workers. Cary, NC: Oxford University Press

Hepworth, DH Rooney, R.H., Rooney, G.D., Strom-Gottfried K., Larsen J. (2009) Direct Social Work Practice: Theory and Skills. Cengage Learning, 2009

Ogrodniczuk, J.S., Joyce, A.S., and Piper W.E. (2005) Strategies for Reducing Patient-Initiated Premature Termination of Psychotherapy. Harvard Review Psychiatry Vol. 13 Issue 2, p57-70, 14p. March/April 2005

## Delving into the Realm of Clinical Psychology: A Comprehensive Guide to Essay Topics

Introduction

Clinical psychology, a multifaceted field rooted in the practice of evidence-based techniques, offers a captivating landscape for scholarly exploration. Its vast scope, encompassing assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders, presents an array of compelling essay topics. This comprehensive guide will navigate you through the intricacies of clinical psychology, providing a wealth of essay topics that resonate with the field's theoretical foundations and practical applications.

Theoretical Perspectives in Clinical Psychology

1. Psychodynamic Theory: Exploring the Unconscious Roots of Psychopathology
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Unveiling the Interplay of Thoughts, Emotions, and....

Research Proposal: Understanding the Influence of Extracurricular Activities on Students' Personal Development and School Engagement

Introduction

Extracurricular activities (ECAs) play a significant role in the lives of students, shaping their personal development and enhancing their school engagement. While research has examined the benefits of ECAs, there is a need for a more comprehensive understanding of their specific influence on students' personal and academic growth. This research proposal aims to investigate the relationship between ECAs and students' personal development and school engagement.

Research Questions

This study will seek to answer the following research questions:

How do ECAs contribute to students' personal development, including their self-esteem,....

The Theory of Individualistic Growth: Understanding the Psychological Development of Individuals Raised in Isolation

Abstract:

This theory explores the psychological development of individuals who have experienced significant periods of isolation and lack of social interaction during critical stages of childhood. It proposes that such individuals develop unique coping mechanisms and exhibit distinct psychological characteristics that shape their identity and behavior patterns. The theory highlights the resilience and adaptability of the human psyche even in adverse circumstances.

Key Concepts:

Individualistic Growth: A process of psychological development that occurs when individuals lack substantial social interaction or parental guidance during childhood.

Self-Reliance: A heightened sense of....