Smallpox
The recent concerns regarding bio-terrorism have given rise to calls for a mass vaccination program against smallpox. The Bush administration has floated plans to administer the smallpox vaccine to healthcare and military workers, to protect against a smallpox outbreak in the United States. This paper examines the symptoms and morbidity rates of smallpox, and studies the arguments both for and against a mass smallpox vaccination campaign.
Smallpox first appeared in northeastern Africa or the Indus Valley of south-central Asia nearly 12,000 years ago (Mayo Clinic 2002).
Throughout history, outbursts of smallpox broke out in various parts of the globe.
The smallpox contagion was also played a decisive role in the colonization of the Americas. In the 15th century, European explorers acted as the unwitting carriers of smallpox to the New orld. Because they lacked natural resistance, Native Americans quickly succumbed to the disease. They also transmitted the virus to other populations. In South…...
mlaWorks Cited
De las Casas, Bartolome. 2002. "The Devastation of the Indians: A Brief Account." Excerpted in The Conquest of the New World. Helen Cothran, ed. San Diego: Greenhaven Press.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002. Smallpox Fact Sheet. available at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/overview/disease-facts.asp
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Factsheet on Smallpox Vaccine. Available at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/vaccination/facts.asp
Gilmore, Gayle. 2003. "IC issues surround smallpox vaccine." Nursing Management 34(6): 58.
The discussion of the effects of smallpox, however, brings into light the fact that War and the events surrounding the War were only small part of the colonists' lives. Despite the War, the colonists had to live their daily lives and endure practical and everyday affairs such as work and disease. Fenn in her book does an excellent job of placing these factors in focus.
If there is a criticism of the book it must be in its failure to provide any new information regarding the conduct of the War itself. Although she does add smallpox to the equation she offers little beyond that fact. Like most authors, she tends to glorify the efforts of the colonists and, by doing so, fails to offer a pragmatic view of the conflict. In what could have been an interesting angle in the book Fenn briefly makes mention of the possibility that the…...
mlaBibliography
Fenn, Elizabeth a. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).
Flight, Colette. "Silent Weapon: Smallpox and Biological Warfare," BBC History retrieved on March 15, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/pox_weapon_01.shtml .
Kipple, K. Plague, Pox & Pestilence (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1997).
Ramenofsky, Ann F. Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact" (Albuquerque, NM 1987).
Development in Modern Medicine In spite of the fact that vaccinations were able to eradicate smallpox, anti-vaccinationists continue to make arguments in opposition to the vaccines because, as Mariner, Annas and Glants show, they base their views on their own personal experience, which can include “bad reactions to earlier vaccinations” (582). The individual experiences of people like Henning Jacobsen, who claimed that vaccinations were neither effective for them nor healthy, may have been exceptions to the rule (they always exist), or they may have been politically motivated to oppose what may have been perceived as overreach on the part of state and federal governments in their attempt to eradicate a disease by ordering the population to vaccinate. In terms of freedom of choice, Jacobsen’s arguments certainly resonate with Americans who support the concept of liberty. However, in today’s world, where safety and security are also viewed as important in maintaining order…...
6). What doctors do know is that the young, the elderly and those with compromised immune systems are far more likely to suffer adverse effects or become contaminated should an epidemic break out. These populations are also far more likely to develop the disease or suffer from side effects of vaccination which may include a heart attack (Annas, 2003).
Many suggest the risk is unknown, because the disease is nearly eradicated, it would take a modern outbreak to ascertain the prognosis of individuals with the disease in modern times. Many feel however, that discourse on the subject is best left unsaid, because the more people discuss the disease, the more likely it is that someone will inadvertently get hold of the disease and attempt to use it.
eferences
Annas, George J. "Smallpox Vaccine: Not Worth the isk," the Hastings Center eport, 33.2, 2003. pp.6-9.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002) Smallpox fact sheet,…...
mlaReferences
Annas, George J. "Smallpox Vaccine: Not Worth the Risk," the Hastings Center Report, 33.2, 2003. pp.6-9.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002) Smallpox fact sheet, smallpox overview. Retrieved December 7, 2007: http://www.cdc.gov/smallpox
Giblin, James C. When Plague Strikes: The Black Death, Smallpox, AIDS. New York:
Harper Collins, 1995.
In 1779 the Creeks and Cherokees in 1779 suffered tremendous population losses and were unable to resist the new U.S. federal government's political and military advances upon their land (Richter 2001). The Indians lost economic power as well, as the Crees and Assiniboines saw their control over the northern fur trade ebb away to the Hudson's Bay Company. Through New Spain, the Great Plains, Hudson's Bay, and the Pacific Coast between 1779 and 1782, the pox cut a swathe through the nation, but had a particularly devastating impact upon Native Americans (Richter 2001). The Native Americans lost their political and economic clout, their land, as well as their lives, and, in the very long-term, they also lost their culture to the epidemic brought by whites.
orks Cited
Richter, Donald. Review of Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82. By Elizabeth Fenn. New York, N.Y., Hill & ang Publishers, 2001. Common…...
mlaWorks Cited
Richter, Donald. Review of Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82. By Elizabeth Fenn. New York, N.Y., Hill & Wang Publishers, 2001. Common Place.
2.3. 2001. February 17, 2009. http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-03/reviews/richter.shtml
esearch Proposal on the Smallpox Vaccine: Controversy, Shift, and Social ImpactThe smallpox vaccine was a major step in the birth and development of the vaccine industry. To some extent, it set the stage for the start of what would eventually emerge as a new industry in healthcarethe vaccine industry. This proposal is to look at the history of the vaccine, controversies that arose as a result of it, and how it changed society in terms of media and communication.The smallpox vaccine stemmed from Edward Jenner\\\'s work in the late 18th century, which was used to show that inoculation with cowpox material could protect against the smallpox virus. Other vaccines followed eventually, including those for rabies, cholera, and typhoid. However, it was not until the widespread production of the smallpox vaccine, driven by the need to control outbreaks, that the emergence of a vaccine industry in a more organized form came…...
mlaReferencesHopkins, D. R. (2002). \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" University of Chicago Press. Lanka, S. (2015). Dismantling the virus theory. Retrieved from https://ivantic.info/Ostale_knjiige/Zdravlje/Dismantling-the-Virus-Theory.pdf
In its most basic sense, this treaty abolished the age-old practice of electing a king of the Romans, a reference to the Holy Roman Empire; it gave France the geographical areas of Verdun, Alsace, Metz and a portion of Strasburg; Sweden was given West Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar and Bremen, known as bishoprics but now part of northern Germany; Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate and all electoral titles, and Saxony retained Lusatia. Also, Spain was forced to fully recognize the United Provinces as a sovereign nation-state. Overall, the Treaty of Westphalia turned Europe into a conglomerate of separate political and economic nation-states that were only partially dependent on each other; the treaty also made it possible for mercantilism to spread throughout Europe, thus creating the foundation for many more years of conflict and war. In addition, this treaty also brought an end to the Eighty Years War between Spain and…...
As to the availability of safe and clean water supplies, and safe waste disposal facilities, Native Peoples are again on the short end of the stick. About twelve percent of Native People do not have adequate supplies of fresh drinking water and dependable waste facilities while only one percent of the general American population do not have those needed facilities (Indian Health Services).
The U.S. Commission on Civil rights reports that the rates Native Americans are dying resulting from diabetes, alcoholism, suicide, unintentional injuries and other health conditions is "shocking" (www.USCCR.gov). Going back to the arrival of the Europeans on the North American Continent, many diseases were brought to the Native Peoples which were "far more lethal than any weapon in the European arsenal" so anyone even preliminarily examining the health care history of Native Peoples can clearly see that this dilemma has been a plague for Indians (www.USCCR.gov). The infectious…...
mlaWorks Cited
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). Health of American Indian or Alaska Native Population. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/faststats/indfacts.htm .
Indian Health Services. (2006). Facts on Indian Health Disparities. Retrieved April 14,
2009, from http://www.americanindianhealth.nim.nih.gov.
United States Commission on Civil Rights. (2004). Broken Promises: Evaluating the Native American Health Care System. Retrieved April 15, 2009, from http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/nahealth/nabroken.pdf .
Chemical and Biological Terroism
Biological and Chemical Terrorism Prevention
The United States Government has identified the potential of chemical, biological, radiological and/or nuclear (termed CBN) terrorism, especially after the September 11 attacks. They have been concerned ever since Sarin was used in a Tokyo subway (Aum Shinrikyo in 1995) and the anthrax case (in November 2001). The chances of terrorists resorting to these agents in warfare are pretty high considering their advantages over conventional methods. Most organizations fighting terrorism are not equipped well enough to detect such chemicals. A closed container can help most of them escape discovery. The low cost involved in their production increases the dangers manifold. Since most of the above agents affect the human body directly, they are essentially more efficient than conventional warfare.
Chemical weapons have four major classifications. Choking agents are aimed at being fatal and are easily accessible. Phosgene is one such industrial chemical agent. Blister…...
mlaReferences
Khan, A. Levitt, A. Sage, M. (2000). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Biological and Chemical Terrorism: Strategic Plan for Preparedness and Response. 7-19. Retrieved From http://www.southernnevadahealthdistrict.org/download/epi/mmwr-plan.pdf
Ashraf H. European dioxin-contaminated food crisis grows and grows [news]. Lancet
1999;353:2049.
Khan, A. Swerdlow, D. Juranek, D. (2001) Precautions Against Biological and Chemical Terrorism directed at Food and Water Supplies. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497290/pdf/11571403.pdf
26 Yet public health continued to mean, even more than in the Clinton administration, a technological approach to national defense. In the Bush administration, pharmaceutical protection became the centerpiece of biodefense policy. On December 13, 2002, convinced of the Dark Winter-type threat of smallpox, President Bush announced his nationwide smallpox inoculation program. Publicity about Iraq's potential biological arsenal, especially in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion, and the threat of bioterrorism had convinced many in the public to participate. The states and the CDC were ready to handle the logistics. In addition, civilian participation was voluntary, which reduced legal liability for those who administered the vaccine and for the government.
As might have been predicted, this smallpox vaccination campaign found it difficult to circumvent the well-known fears of vaccination as a source of bodily pollution and the mistrust engendered when vaccines appear a worse health risk than the forecast epidemic. The…...
mlaReferences
Fauci, Anthony S.M.D., Bioterrorism Preparedness: NIH Smallpox Research Efforts, available at Accessed on October 22, 2011.http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t011102b.htm
Frist, William. The Political Perspective of the Bioterrorism Threat, in Biological Threats and Terrorism: Assessing the Science and Response Capabilities, 29 (Stacy L. Knobler & Adel A.F. Mahmoud & Leslie A. Pray eds., National Academy Press 2002).
Neergaard, Lauran. Postmaster: Anthrax Threatens Mail, The Washington Post, Oct. 24, 2001, available at / aponline090115_002.html Accessed on October 21, 2011.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/20011024
Tanielian, Terri. Ricci, Karen. Stoto, Michael A. David Dausey, J. Lois M. Davis, Myers, Sarah. Olmsted, Stuart. Willis, Henry H. (2005) Exemplary Practices in Public Health Preparedness. RAND Corporation. Accessed on October 21, 2011.http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR239.pdf
Having known the mounting dangers, many public health and bio-terrorism experts, members of Congress and some well-positioned ush administration officials convey increasing discomfort about what they think are flaws in the country's bio-defenses. Over the earlier years, awareness steps have been made, mainly in the large cities. ut most of necessary equipments are not available.
The federal government's standard answer to the anthrax assaults of 2001 and the warning of upcoming bio-terror attacks has been to accumulate huge amounts of drugs and vaccines to take care of or vaccinate sufferers or possible sufferers. However, these medicines are ineffective if there is no dependable system in place to quickly distribute and give out them to the disturbed populations early enough for the drugs to be successful. Regrettably, as of now, we do not have this strong, competent system in position in the United States. At the close of 2003, only two…...
mlaBibliography
Analysis: U.S. Unprepared for Bio-Attack. NewsMax Wires. Retrieved from: Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/11/10/114328.shtml .
Biological Threat to U.S. Homeland is Very Real. 2004. Retrieved at Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://www.aviationnow.com/content/ncof/view_19.htm.
Biological Weapons and Threat Detection. Osborn Scientific Group BADD white paper. April, 2002. Retrieved at Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://osborn-scientific.com/PDF/osg_wp_bw_041802.pdf.
Brennan, Phil. Bio-terrorism Threat to U.S. is Real & Deadly. October 4, 2001. Retrieved at Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2001/10/3/142304.shtml .
Native Societies and Disease
Numerous reports from European traders, missionaries, soldiers and explorers in the 16th and 17th Centuries reveal the same information about the devastating effect smallpox and other epidemic diseases had on the aboriginal populations of the Americas. Europeans were colonizing Africa and Asia at the same time, but "on no other continent in historic times has a combined disease and Construct phenomenon led to the collapse of an entire indigenous population."[footnoteRef:1] In 1492, Native Americans were one-fifth to one-sixth of the global population, but their numbers never came close to equaling that again after all the great epidemics that struck them in waves. Unlike China and India, where smallpox, plague, typhus, measles and influenza already existed, and therefore the local populations had more immunity and greatly outnumbered the European colonizers, aboriginal American societies routinely suffered mortality rates of 80 or 90%. Some forms of smallpox, such as the…...
mlaBIBLIOGRAPHY
Hackett, Paul. "A Very Remarkable Sickness": Epidemics in the Petit Nord, 1670 to 1846. (University of Manitoba Press, 2002).
Trigger, Bruce G. Natives and Newcomers: Canada's "Heroic Age" Revisited (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1985).
Warrick, Garry A., "European Infections, Disease and Depopulation of the Wendat-Tionotate (Huron-Petun)" in Jordan F. Kerber (ed) Archaeology of the Iroquois: Selected Readings and Research Sources (Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 269-86.
Watts, Sheldon. Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism (Yale University Press, 1997).
egardless, highly possible plans can be devised could result in huge numbers of deaths that range into the thousands for chemical agents and the hundreds of thousands, or maybe millions, with biological ones6. Bioterrorists have successfully utilized agents ranging from the ones that rapidly cause death, such as nerve agents and cyanide, to those that impact hours after exposure, such as mustard gas and pulmonary agents.
John Hopkins Center for Civilian Biodefense Studies compared potential biological agents to determine which maximum credible event would offer the greatest risk for a public health response. In this case, the "maximum credible event" is defined as an occurrence that could cause significant loss of life, as well as disruption, panic, and a total overwhelming of the civilian health-care resources. 7
To fit this definition of a maximum credible event, the CB must include some of the following properties: be highly lethal, easily produced in…...
mlaReferences
Henderson, Donald a "Smallpox as a biological weapon." Journal of the American Medical Association, 283 (1999), 2127-2137
Kortepeter Mark G. And Gerald W. Parker, "Potential Biological Weapons Threats." Emerging Infectious Diseases Journal. 5 (1999): 523-525
Report No. 2000/02: Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Terrorism." Perspectives. Accessed 2 July 2007http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/perspectives/200002.asp.
Sidell, Frederick R. And David R. Franz. Introduction to chemical and biological agents. Medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare. Washington, D.C.: Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 1997
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eezley, ill. "The Global Market from and to the Americas." University of Arizona (November 23, 2004), http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:uKRvc_4yeu4J:las.arizona.edu/outreach/complete_curriculum_units/taste_of_LA/Taste%2520of%2520LA%2520Handouts.pdf+%22columbian+exchange%22+food&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us.
Hodge, F. "Disabled American Indians: A Special Population Requiring Special Considerations." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 13 (1988), 83-104.
Sale, Kirkpatrick. The Conquest of Paradise. New York: Alfred a. Knopf, 1990.
Stannard, David E. American Holocaust. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Viola, Herman J. And Carolyn Margolis. Seeds of Change. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.
David E. Stannard, American Holocaust (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 53.
Kirkpatrick Sale, the Conquest of Paradise (New York: Alfred a. Knopf, 1990), 34.
Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, Seeds of Change (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 79.
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F. Hodge, "Disabled American Indians: A Special Population Requiring Special Considerations," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 13 (1988), 83-104.
ill…...
mlaBibliography
Crosby, Alfred W. Ecological Imperialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Beezley, Bill. "The Global Market from and to the Americas." University of Arizona (November 23, 2004), http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:uKRvc_4yeu4J:las.arizona.edu/outreach/complete_curriculum_units/taste_of_LA/Taste%2520of%2520LA%2520Handouts.pdf+%22columbian+exchange%22+food&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us.
Hodge, F. "Disabled American Indians: A Special Population Requiring Special Considerations." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 13 (1988), 83-104.
Sale, Kirkpatrick. The Conquest of Paradise. New York: Alfred a. Knopf, 1990.
People From History That Impacted the World in a Positive Way
Three People from History
Three People from History who impacted the World in a Positive Way
Ross Granville Harrison (1807 -- 1959)
Ross Granville Harrison was an American zoologist. He is known for his discovery of a method of growing cells outside of the body. In his famous experiment carried out in 1906 he placed a piece of a frog's embryonic nerve tissue into a drop of frog lymphatic fluid, and saw that the nerve tissue did not die, but rather continued to grow. (Ross Granville Harrison) The method that Harrison developed from this experiment was to form the foundation of the tissue culture technique used in modern medicine and in medical research. This technique has become an extremely important part of contemporary medical research as it allows for "…the study of isolated living cells in a controlled environment." (Ross Granville Harrison).
Harrison…...
mlaBibliography
Alexander Fleming (1881-1955). Web. 18 Nov. 2010.
Beale, Norman, and Elaine Beale. "Evidence-based Medicine in the Eighteenth Century: the Ingen Housz-jenner Correspondence Revisited." Medical History 49.1 (2005): 79+. Questia. Web. 18 Nov. 2010.
Edward Jenner (1749-1823). Web. 18 Nov. 2010.
To write an essay on the impact of contagious diseases, you will want to narrow down the topic. There are several different types of contagious diseases, and the various pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Disease can spread in various ways. The current Covid-19 pandemic is airborne and spreads through both air and touch, but other diseases have been blood borne, sexually transmitted, spread in food, or spread through other vectors, such as mosquitoes. There are also different types of outbreaks of diseases including pandemic, endemic, epidemic, and outbreak. They have....
Vaccination: A Critical Examination
Introduction
Vaccinations have become an integral part of modern healthcare, effectively preventing the spread of numerous debilitating diseases. However, the safety and efficacy of vaccines have also been subjects of debate, sparking controversy and inspiring a range of essay topics. This essay will explore various aspects of vaccination, providing a comprehensive overview of the arguments surrounding this polarizing issue.
Historical Perspectives on Vaccination
The Evolution of Vaccination: From Smallpox to COVID-19
The Role of Edward Jenner in the Development of the First Vaccine
Vaccination Programs and the Eradication of Polio
Scientific Considerations
The Science Behind Vaccines: Understanding How They Work
....
The westward invasion had a devastating impact on Native American tribes. As settlers moved westward, they encroached on Native American lands, leading to violent conflicts and wars. Many tribes were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands and relocated to less desirable and often unfamiliar territories.
The loss of land and resources had a profound impact on the traditional way of life of many tribes. Their hunting grounds were disrupted, their food sources depleted, and their cultural practices threatened. This led to widespread poverty, hunger, and disease among Native American communities.
Additionally, the westward invasion resulted in the spread of diseases such as....
1. Have you ever wondered how vaccines work to protect us from diseases?
2. The science behind vaccines is truly fascinating and crucial for public health.
3. Understanding the magic of vaccines can help dispel common myths and misconceptions.
4. Vaccines have a long history of saving lives and preventing outbreaks of deadly diseases.
5. Delve into the science behind vaccines to appreciate the incredible advancements in modern medicine.
Sources
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