In suburban areas, on the other hand, the economic opportunities are diverse and the population is less dense. Here parents are motivated to educate their child and the child gets higher individual attention from the teachers than those in the urban areas where population density is very high (Broomhall and Johnson, 1994; and Hanson and Ginsburg, 1988). Since educational aspirations of parents, students and teachers differ by population density and location; therefore, achievement gap differs by population density and location.
It is clear to some scholars that educational aspirations of parents, students and teachers remain the most important determinant of whether and how much a student achieves (Alexander, Eckland, & Griffin, 1975; Astin & Karabel, 1975; Chapman, 1981; Conklin & Dailey, 1981; Geoffrey, 1998; Litten, 1982). For instance, Astin and Karabel (1975) have conducted a research and the regression analyses indicate that measured academic ability is a more powerful predictor…...

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References

Alexander, K.L., Eckland, B.K., & Griffin, L.J. (1975). The Wisconsin model of socioeconomic achievement: A replication. American Journal of Sociology, 81, 324-342.

Astin, a.W., & Karabel, J. (1975). Social class, academic ability, and college "quality." Social Forces, 53(3), 381-398.

Azzam, a.M. (2005). The funding gap. Educational Leadership, 93.

Berk, L.E. (2000). Child Development (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 23-38.

Most states have provisions somewhat similar to that of the NCLB, where funding to districts and specific institutions is specifically allocated and comes with certain requirements (Galvin & obins 2000; U.S. DOE 2009). Advantages of receiving funding at the state level are increased localization and attention to differences in districts (U.S. DOE 2009). Disadvantages, however, are that the state is subject to even more extreme budgetary and taxation fluctuations, leading to uncertain funding year-to-year (Galvin & obbins 2000).
Supplementing vs. Supplanting

One of the major requirements of both federal and much state funding is that the dollars obtained through these sources must supplement existing programs and funding and cannot simply supplant them (UD DOE 2009; NCLB 2002). A simplified hypothetical example provides what is perhaps the best illustration of this policy. Assume that federal funds are obtained for the purposes of training teachers, but the school and/or district that is receiving…...

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References

Galvin, P. & Robins, H. (2000). "State education finance: Utah." Accessed 11 October 2009.  http://nces.ed.gov/edfin/pdf/StFinance/utah.pdf 

Morris, a. (2009). "No Child Left Behind Funding Gets Big Increase in House Stimulus Bill." Accessed 11 October 2009.  http://www.civilrights.org/archives/2009/02/045-nclb-funding.html 

NCLB. (2002). Accessed 11 October 2009.  http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html 

US Dept. Of Education. (2009). Accessed 11 October 2009.  http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml?src=a

LCFF Position Statement
School funding structure and allocation is something that is very controversial. It summons discussions and specters of class warfare, the haves vs. The have-not's equity in opportunity, equity in outcomes and many other hot-button topics in the political, cultural and public lexicons. The current school funding structure in the state of California is to be jettisoned in favor of the new Local Control Funding Formula, whereby funding for specific initiatives and goals is gotten rid of in favor of block grants of funds that are based on the situation and conditions of the school district in question. While no single funding structure will ever be perfect, especially for a state like California, treating school systems based on overall tax bases and resources is far better than allowing pet projects in individual districts to get special treatment for specific monies.

Analysis

It has been known and pontificated about for years and…...

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References

CDE. (2014, April 2). LCFF Frequently Asked Questions. - Local Control Funding

Formula (CA Dept of Education). Retrieved April 2, 2014, from  http://www.cde.ca.gov/fg/aa/lc/lcfffaq.asp#FC 

CalWatchdog. (2013, March 27). Class warfare hits CA K-12 education | CalWatchDog.

CalWatchDog. Retrieved April 2, 2014, from  http://calwatchdog.com/2013/03/27/class-warfare-hits-ca-k-12-education/

Special Education
Given the diverse needs and universal education needs of students with exceptionalities, what is one of the most significant fiduciary responsibilities of the school leader? Why are these significant?

It is important to note, from the onset, that the school leader oversees not only student placement, but also staff assignment and management of the education al programs of schools. In general, school leaders in a special education setting have a duty to act in the best interests of students with exceptionalities. Specifically, they should strive to set up learning opportunities that are accommodative for students with special needs.

Exceptional students are largely heterogeneous -- meaning that their education needs vary significantly. However, the education goals of such students need not vary from those of other children (Tomlinson, 2011). In that regard, therefore, school leaders ought to put in place educational structures as well as conditions that avail optimal learning opportunities for…...

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References

Baker, B.D., Sciarra, D.G. & Farrie, D. (2010). Is School Funding Fair? A National Report Card. Retrieved from http://www.schoolfundingfairness.org/National_Report_Card.pdf

Guin, k., Gross, B., Deburgomaster, S. & Roza, M. (2007). Do Districts Fund Schools Fairy? Retrieved from  http://educationnext.org/do-districts-fund-schools-fairly/ 

Tomlinson, S. (2011). A Sociology of Special Education. New York, NY: Routledge.

The trial lasted seven months and Justice Leland Degrasse rendered his decision, 719 N.Y.S.2d 475 on January 10, 2001, in favor of plaintiffs and ordered the state to ensure that all public schools provide the opportunity for a sound basic education to their students." (Hunter, 2004) Entered, as part of this decision was a "costing-out study as the threshold task in developing a new school funding system." (Hunter, 2004) the intermediate-levels appeals court overturned the decision of the trial-court and made the claim that the New York State Constitution required only an eighth-grade education. The decision was appealed by the Plaintiff and the Court of Appeals sent down its decision (CFE II) which ruled for the favor of the plaintiff and New York State was given until the 30th July 2004 to: (1) make determination of the cost of the provision of a sound basic education; (2) fund these…...

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Bibliography

Buckley, Jack (2004) Department of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation. Boston College. Online available at  http://www.edfacilities.org/pubs/teacherretention.cfm 

New York (2007) Access Litigation Recent Developments. School Funding.

Hunter, M.H. (2004) Estimating the Additional Cost of Providing an Adequate Education - New York State Fact Sheet. 2004 April 28. Prepared for New York State Board of Regents and New York State Education Department.

Keman, Hans (1984) Politics, Policies and Consequences: A Cross-national Analysis of Public Policy Formation in Advanced Capitalist Democracies (1967-1984) European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 12 Issue 2,-Page 147. July 1984.

It moves things forward, but by inches, not by yards."
Again, using the acquisition and retention of "adequate" and competent teachers is an excellent example of the inadequacy of the current system -- even after the Williams settlement -- simply because the system, nor the funds have been adjusted to provide the level of education required in the schools. For instance, again according to Schrag:

it doesn't, however, contain any major incentives to attract and retain qualified teachers in impacted schools: There are no provisions for more preparation time, or smaller classes or the additional support personnel - counselors, reading specialists, librarians, vice principals - that schools and teachers serving disadvantaged students especially need (Schrag, 2004).

Although, as some might suggest, many teachers are willing to dedicate themselves on principle to providing adequate (or even above-adequate) education for their students even in the most difficult of situations, one has to wonder just…...

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Bibliography

Dictionary.com. (2004). Definition of Equity. Retrieved on October 14, 2004, from,  http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=equity&r=67 

Garrett, Kristi. (2003). "The Price of Success: The discussion about pricing a public education takes a noteworthy turn from equity to adequacy." California School Boards Association Magazine. Retrieved on October 14, 2004, from,  http://www.csba.org/csmag/Summer2003/csMagStoryTemplate.cfm?id=39 

Ryan, Howard. (2002). "Targeting Proposition 13 and Saving California." Web site. Retrieved on October 14, 2004, from, http://www.howardryan.net/prop13.htm

Schrag, Peter. (2004). "Williams deal - Better California schools by inches." Sacramento Bee. Aug. 18. Retrieved on October 14, 2004, from, http://www.sacbee.com/content/politics/columns/schrag/story/10417928p-11337563c.html

The debate over whether schools require additional funding has been a contentious issue, and perspectives on it are as varied as they are impassioned. Educators, policymakers, and researchers often cite the importance of adequate resources in ensuring a quality education for all students (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Funding plays a crucial role in every aspect of education: from maintaining facilities and paying teachers to providing up-to-date textbooks and incorporating technology in the classroom.



One argument in favor of increased school funding is the association between financial resources and educational outcomes. There is substantial evidence to suggest that when schools have more resources, they can provide smaller class sizes, more varied instructional materials, and additional support services for students with special needs (Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1996). These enhancements can contribute to a more personalized and effective learning experience, which in turn can lead to improved student performance.



Moreover, disparities in school funding have been…...

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References

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America\'s commitment to equity will determine our future. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Greenwald, R., Hedges, L. V., & Laine, R. D. (1996). The effect of school resources on student achievement. Review of educational research, 66(3), 361-396.

Reardon, S. F. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In R. Murnane & G. Duncan (Eds.), Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children\'s life chances (pp. 91-116). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., & Vigdor, J. L. (2007). Teacher credentials and student achievement: Longitudinal analysis with student fixed effects. Economics of Education Review, 26(6), 673-682.

Abstract This paper compares and contrasts the school funding approaches of the state of Illinois and the District of Columbia. It shows that in Illinois there is a far greater problem of how to achieve a more equitable distribution of funds, though the state is currently setting a course to try to make this happen with its evidence-based model funding formula recently passed this year. In DC on the other hand, a foundation formula is used to disperse funds equitably throughout the District and private investment is obtained to help develop programs that can assist in closing the achievement gap. DC is thus better structured and its school funding approach better supported to achieve success over the long run.
Keywords: school funding, dc, Illinois, education
School Funding Investigation:
Comparing and Contrasting Illinois and Washington, D.C.
Introduction
Funding for schools is a controversial topic for many mainly because of the lack of discernible equitability evident throughout the…...

ound 2 Draft evision - Pilot Study: Influences of Geographical Location on Academic and Life Outcomes of Young Black Males in ChicagoAbstractThis draft focuses on how the geographical location within Chicago influences academic and life outcomes for young Black males. The pilot study is informed by initial findings that suggest significant disparities based on locationNorth, South, and West sides of Chicago. This research integrates qualitative data from school principals and local educational administrators, aiming to explore systemic factors that contribute to these disparities.IntroductionHistorical Context and Systemic IssuesHistorical ContextChicago has long been recognized as one of the most racially segregated cities in the United States. This segregation is not a relic of the past but continues to profoundly shape the socio-economic and educational landscapes of the city. The historical roots of this segregation can be traced back to discriminatory practices such as redlining, restrictive covenants, and urban renewal policies that systematically…...

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ReferencesAnderson, J. D. (1988). The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Bailey, C. (2018). A guide to qualitative field research. SAGE Publications.Bell, D. A. (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma. Harvard Law Review, 93(3), 518-533.Bell, D. A. (1992). Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism. Basic Books.Bloomberg, L.D. (2023). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road map from beginning to end. SAGE Publications, Inc.Crawford, M. (2020). Ecological Systems theory: Exploring the development of the theoretical framework as con-ceived by Bronfenbrenner. J Pub Health Issue Pract, 4(2), 170.Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The Flat World and Education New York: Teachers College Press.Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York: New York University Press.Ferguson, A. A. (2000). Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. University of Michigan Press.Harris, C. I. (1993). Whiteness as Property. Harvard Law Review, 106(8), 1707-1791.Kozol, J. (1991). Savage Inequalities: Children in America\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s Schools. New York: Crown Publishing Group.Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a Theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491.Noguera, P. A. (2008). The Trouble with Black Boys: And Other Reflections on Race, Equity, and the Future of Public Education. Jossey-Bass.Orfield, G., & Lee, C. (2005). Why Segregation Matters: Poverty and Educational Inequality. The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.Rothstein, R. (2017). The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. Liveright Publishing.Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. 3rd Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.Seidman, I. (2019). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education & the social sciences. 5th Ed. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Sharkey, P. (2013). Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress toward Racial Equality. University of Chicago Press.Small, D. (2020, January). The hidden curriculum in public schools and its disadvantage to minority students. In International Forum of Teaching and Studies (Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 16-24). American Scholars Press, Inc.Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629.

Utilization of the data and collection of the data should be one of the main aims of the policy makers. The data can be used by the policymakers in order to develop the policies and implement these in order to make sure that improvement can be ensured (Basch, 2011, p. 9).
3. One of the main roles that can be played by the policy makers includes reviewing the policies that have already been designed for the schools. How these previous policies have played roles in an improvement of academics of the children, their environments and their health are important parts of the review by the policymakers. It is important that funding is collected for the issues that affect health and academics of children.

4. The policymakers should make sure that the importance of school-based health clinics that can play roles in looking after the needs of the students.

Great levels of differences…...

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References

Basch, C. (2011). Executive Summary: Healthier Students Are Better Learners. Journal of School Health 81, pp. 4-107.

Bruzzese, J., Sheares, B.J., Vincent, E.J., Du, Y., Sadeghi, H., Levison, M.J., Mellins, B.R., and Evans, D. (2011). Effects of a School-based Intervention for Urban Adolescents with Asthma: A Controlled Trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. April 15, 2011 183, pp. 998-1006.

Gall, G., Pagano, M.E., Desmond, S., Perrin, J.M., and Murphy, J.M. (2000). Utility of Psychosocial Screening at a School-based Health Center. Journal of School Health 70, pages 292 -- 298.

Geierstanger, P.S., Amaral, G., Mansour, M., and Walters, R.S. (2004). School-Based Health Centers and Academic Performance: Research, Challenges, and Recommendations. Journal of School Health 74, pages 347 -- 352.

Her point is to get support for her views, and she did, because three months after she wrote this piece there was a rally at the State Capitol in Austin where 5,000 people called for school choice in front of the Capitol building. Therefore, her words helped people make up their minds and seek action from their legislators. However, she failed to convince the legislators, who did not even address school choice during the 2007 legislative session (Editors). Either this means that the legislators are not listening to the will of the people, or that her rhetoric failed to gain their support.
The media has certainly picked up this issue, and it is an issue all around the country, not just in Texas. The Milwaukee school district has had a voucher system like this for over sixteen years, and it has proven to be a money saving plan for taxpayers,…...

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References

Editors. "School Choice Legislation." CEOAustin.org. 2008. 4 May 2009.

Storey, Jamie. "The Dropout Drain: How Dropouts -- Not School Choice -- Take Money From Public Schools." Texas Public Policy Foundation. 2007. 4 May 2009.

.

Public School Funding
ith reports on the lower standardized test scores among the nation's students, policy makers are once again turning their attention to the issue of education reform. For many educators, one of the culprits behind this is not only the dearth of money spent on public education. Rather, the available funding is disbursed unequally, benefiting the already more affluent school districts.

This paper examines the inequity that exists in funding public school education.

The first part of this paper looks at examples of this unequal funding throughout the country. The next part of the paper then looks at the various reasons for these disparities, from the government level to the lack of public support.

In the conclusion, this paper argues that there remains a strong need to increase public support for education funding, and to re-work the current formula used by states to determine how school funds are disbursed. After all, whether…...

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Works Cited

Brooks, Charles. 2002. "Poor and minority districts get thousands less per student." New York Amsterdam News. August 15.

Jencks, Christopher and Meredith Phillips. 1998. The Black-White Test Score Gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

McDermott, Kathryn. 1999. Controlling Public Education: Localism vs. Equity. Lawrenc: University Press of Kansas.

Reed, Douglas. 2001. "Not in My Schoolyard: Localism and Public Opposition to Funding Schools Equally." Social Science Quarterly. March.

He also asserts that government participation in the arts beyond its role as a consumer can pose significant hindrances to the artistic processes. He claims that politics tends to "seek stability, compromise, and consensus," and as a result avoids supporting art that may "offend majority opinion or go over its head" (38). The market, on the other hand, has "liberated artists…from the potential tyranny of mainstream market taste" (23).
Is Government Funding Necessary or Appropriate?

There are many who disagree with Cowen, claiming that public funding for the arts is crucial to maintaining a vibrant, diverse, and forward-thinking creative community. These arguments are generally characterized by the theory that, while art as a market commodity is a healthy and valuable part of the artistic culture, there must also be a forum for art as a public good. This forum cannot be trusted to the market, which may or may not value…...

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References

Becker, Howard. 1982. Art Worlds. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Cowen, Tyler. 1998. In Praise of Commercial Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Jenkins, Henry. 2006. Convergence Culture: Where old and new media collide. New York: New York University Press.

McChesney, Robert. 2004. The Problem of the Media. New York" Monthly Review Press.

The NCLB Act (2002) stresses the use of key performance indicators (KPIs) and metrics of performance. The Open Group (2003) in defining the need for integration says that the data captured in SIF "are subsequently moved through state information systems to be used.
Federal, state and local dependence on the quality and availability of education data to inform decision-making has never been higher as funding to the school level based on NCLB benchmarks and measure adequate yearly progress (AYP) requirements" (Open Group 2003).

All of these many requirements for reporting the performance of learning programs upward through district, municipal, and state and federal levels is to benchmark the effectiveness of teaching programs, adherence to and compliance with NCLB measures of success, and ultimately to define which schools will continue to receive state and federal funding for their programs, or conversely, those schools that will be audited as a result of their…...

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References

NCLB (2002) - the White House Fact Sheet: No Child Left Behind Act. White House press announcement. Accessed from the Internet on August 12, 2007 from location:  http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020108.html 

Open Group (2003) - White paper titled, "The SIF Plan: Advance Education through Interoperability." Published November, 2002. Updated April, 2003. San Francisco, CA. Accessed from the Internet on August 11, 2007 from location:  http://www.opengroup.org/comm/case-studies/SIF-casestudy.pdf 

SIF Architecture (2007) - Schools Interoperability Framework (SIF) Association. Presentation of the architectural elements of the SIF standard. Titled "SIF NCLB State Architecture and Community of Practice" accessed on August 12, 2007 from location: http://sif.edreform.net/download/102/1-6%20SIF%20NCLB%20State%20CoP.ppt

SIF (2007) - Why Interoperability. Description of the Zone integration server in the SIF networking topology. Schools Interoperability Framework Association website content. Accessed from the Internet on August 12, 2007 from location:

Another means for supporting and financing the education of deaf people is through the promotion of a financial package meant to improve the resources available to special schools and teachers. In this sense, schools in Great Britain for instance receive special funds for training their teachers to reach British Sign Language level 3 (Scottish Council on Deafness, n.d.), to become more aware of the special needs such persons have in the society and the academic environment. At the same time, the recruitment of already trained personal is fully funded in order to have the best teachers available for these special schools.

In theory, these projects are worth mentioning and offer a positive perspective on the issues concerning deaf people. However, not all children or grownups can benefit from such funding possibilities. In the education area, there are only specialized agencies which commit their funds to providing financial support to special schools…...

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References

National Foundation for the Deaf - Deaf Education Scholarship. (2006). New Zeeland Culture Online. Retrieved 18 Jan. 2008, at  http://www.nzlive.com/en/funding/800437/B 

Scottish Council on Deafness. (n.d.) Education and training. Access to communication and language, audiology, employment, health, social work and social care. Retrieved 18 Jan, at http://www.scod.org.uk/pdf/Manifesto2007.pdf

Effective Use of Additional School Funding to Enhance Educational Outcomes

Additional funding allocation to schools presents an invaluable opportunity to bolster educational outcomes for students. By judiciously utilizing these resources, schools can implement transformative initiatives that address critical areas of need and support the holistic development of every learner.

1. Enhancing Teacher Quality and Development:

Recruitment and Retention: Provide competitive salaries and benefits to attract and retain highly qualified teachers.
Professional Development: Offer ongoing professional development opportunities to enhance teacher skills and knowledge in evidence-based practices.
Mentoring and Coaching: Establish mentorship and coaching programs to support novice teachers and foster excellence.

2. Reducing....