ousseau's work on The Social Contract begins with a legendary ringing indictment of society as it exists: "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains" (ousseau 1993, p. 693). Before examining ousseau's theory of government in greater detail, however, it is worth noting what assumptions are contained in this first sentence of The Social Contract, which is perhaps the most famous line that ousseau ever wrote. It contains an assumption about human nature -- that somehow the nature of man is "free" and that the government that exists at the time of ousseau's publication in 1762 is somehow an unjust imposition upon that freedom. This is important to note because ousseau, not unlike his predecessors Locke and Hobbes, needs to establish a theory of human nature before he can outline a theory of just government. It is worth noting that in the same year ousseau published The Social…...
mlaReferences
Bertram, C, "Jean Jacques Rousseau," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2011 Edition), Zalta, EN (ed.), Accessed 1 June 2012 at: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2011/entries/rousseau/
Delaney, JJ, 2005. "Rousseau, Jean-Jacques." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed 1 June 2012 at: http://www.iep.utm.edu/rousseau/
Duncan, S, "Thomas Hobbes," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition), Zalta, EN (ed.) Accessed 1 June 2012 at: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/hobbes/
Rousseau, JJ, 1993. "The Social Contract." In Solomon, RC. (ed.) Introducing Philosophy. Fifth Edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt, Brace.
Thus, it becomes necessary for society to compel this individual to act in accordance to the general will in order to stall a descent into arbitrary standards and meaningless identifications, and because acting in accordance with the general will means exercising reason and the freedom of thought and expression, this compelling takes the form of forcing someone to be free. The individual is ultimately compelled by society to utilize the full extent of his or her reasoning capabilities, which is ultimately the only means of achieving any true freedom, as freedom of action can only come from freedom of thought, expression, and an accurate, reasonable view of objective reality.
It is important to note that even in the instance where society compels an individual to obey the general will, the individual is still not suffering any kind of undue infringement of rights, because by definition the force exerted on that…...
mlaWorks Cited
Kant, Immanuel. "An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment? ." Literary Link. N.p.,
1784. Web. 19 Sep 2012. . '
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Trans. G. DH Cole the Social Contract. New York: Cosimo Classics,
2008. Print.
Rousseau: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
This is a paper that argues and proves how Rousseau would have reacted to the Declaration of Rights in the light of the French Revolutionaries. It has 3 sources.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen produced by the French Revolutionaries is considered as one of the founding documents of the human rights tradition. This paper argues that the document accurately represents Rousseau concept of the "ocial Contract" and that it had a foremost influence on the intellectual development of the French Revolution. The paper concludes that Rousseau would have agreed to most of the "Articles" in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, as it ensures both liberty and equality among men, two of the most fundamental concept in Rousseau's political philosophy.
Discussion
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the prolific western thinkers who believed that human beings are inherently…...
mlaSources of European History, vol. 6, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania History Department, 1899, 14-16.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, the Social Contract and Discourses, translated by G. DH Cole (London: J.M. Dent, 1913), pages 207-238.
Author not available, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Accessed on 16-4-2003 at http://members.aol.com/agentmess/frenchrev/mancitizen.html
Rousseau on Corruption: Its Causes and Elimination
Proprietary Ownership as the Underlying Problem in Human Society
According to Rousseau, elements of human societies promote conflict in and of themselves. Specifically, Rousseau explains in his Discourse on Inequality (1754) that the very concept of proprietary ownership, especially of real property (i.e. land ownership), is unnatural and necessarily leads to respective comparisons, competition, and envy. He argues that those who come to own large amounts of property inevitably become part of a privileged class and that everybody else is relegated to being less privileged and comparatively disadvantaged. Furthermore, in addition to inspiring envy and class conflict within individual societies, the concept of proprietary ownership, according to Rousseau, also explains the antagonism that so frequently leads to conflict and warfare between different societies.
The Origin of Corruption in Human Societies
According to Rousseau, there are four fundamental human impulses promoted by proprietary ownership that result in conflict;…...
In Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume discuss the relationship between sympathy, natural virtue, artificial virtue, and human nature. How (if at all) do they function in Hume's account of society?
Our moral evaluation of a person comes through our sentiments -- through that which gives us pleasure or repugnance and through which we see as beneficial for the well-ordering of society. So a negative characteristic such as theft, for instance, called by us a vice is called so since it disrupts the harmony of society, whereas, a 'virtue' such as charity is commended for its constructiveness. It is in this way too that the so-called vice accords repugnance whilst the so-called virtue gives pleasure. In fact, we distinguish between virtue and vice by means of the sentiments that we feel towards these attributes. All of the virtues, moreover, have societal value in that they are either agreeable or pragmatic to…...
Morality therefore comes within but is associated with the results generated within as well:
The force of an internal sanction derives from the feeling of pleasure which is experienced when a moral law is obeyed and the feeling of pain which accompanies a violation of it (Denise, Peterfreund, and White, 1996, 202).
Kant sees the true nature of the age and stated,
Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed nonage. Nonage is the inability to use one's own understanding without anther's guidance. This nonage is self-imposed if its cause lies not in lack of understanding but in indecision and lack of courage to use one's own mind without another's guidance (Kant, 1973, p. 384.
Kant expresses the view that the public can enlighten itself if it is given the freedom to do so, and this would become a starting point for intellectual inquiry in the age as well as for the development of…...
mlaReferences
Copleston, F. (1959). A history of philosophy: Volume VI: Wolff to Kant. New York: Doubleday.
Denise, T.C., S.P. Peterfreund, and N.P. White (1996). Great traditions in ethics?. New York: Wadsworth.
Dent, N.J.H. (1992). A Rousseau dictionary. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Green, F.C. (1955). Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Cambridge at the University Press.
Rousseau believed that a sovereign should rule the people, yet the State should be directed by the general will of the people and if some did not wish to go along with the rest they should be forced to do so by everyone else and "be forced to be free." Rousseau was a not really a Communist at heart, and believed that man should have a sovereign to act upon the will of the people. Marx, however, thought it would be best for the workers to rise up and take away the property, factories and property owned by the few in the ruling class in the name of Communism. Marx believed that Communists should "openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions," in the Communist revolution. "The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains," he said in Section III,…...
mlaWorks Cited
Fiero, Gloria K. "Faith, Reason, and Power in the Early Modern World." The Humanistic Tradition, Vol. 4. Boston: McGraw Hill. 1998.
Fiero, Gloria K. "Romanticism, Realism, and the Nineteenth Century World." The Humanistic Tradition, Vol. 5. Boston: McGraw Hill. 2002.
Marx, Karl. Communist Manifesto. 1848.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men. 1755.
Perhaps war is sometimes necessary. But always soldiers must remember they are not fighting as individuals, they have sacrificed their individuality for the common benefit, so others, paradoxically, can enjoy being individuals in society.
The contradictions of war can never be fully resolved -- for the rest of their countrymen to live safely and not live in a brutal state of nature, soldiers kill. To be individuals and to be able to enjoy culture rather than constantly wage a struggle for the fittest, soldiers sacrifice their individuality for the sake of a grievance that is not their own in brutal battle. And as part of the modern nation-state, all human beings likewise commit similar 'infractions' of their personal liberty, spanning any number of actions they would not otherwise perform, from paying taxes, to serving on juries, to obeying the petty laws about garbage collecting of their town or municipality. To…...
They are often discouraged from running around, exploring the world and obeying their instincts, and instead are forced to go against those instincts. Children are compelled to obey adult rules and laws, and 'sit still and learn' when they are told to do so.
While Rousseau's belief about when children should learn to read seems fairly late, especially considering what we now know about the development of the human brain, his stress upon learning through doing seems valuable. Rousseau would strongly support having art, music, and hands-on aspects of education in the schools, which he would see as more in keeping with natural childhood inclinations. Although Rousseau was an idealist, many of his suggestions can be translated into more practical applications, especially in the natural sciences and the arts.
Chapter 5: How did Rousseau view women in general, as mothers and as wives? Which of his opinions are still fairly prevalent?
Some…...
John Keats and Jean Jacques Rousseau
Loneliness and Suffering: Romanticism in "Ode on Melancholy" by John Keats and "Confessions" by Jean Jacques Rousseau
etween the period of 18th and 19th centuries, Western civilization bore witness to important social movements that significantly influenced the culture of human societies extant during these periods. In terms of literature and philosophy, 18th century gave birth to the age of Enlightenment, while the 19th century paved the way for Romanticism, movements that influenced people's contemplation of the future of humanity, realities, and self-realizations in life.
John Keats and Jean Jacques Rousseau are examples of philosophers and writers who subsisted to the principles of Romanticism and the Enlightenment. As reflected in their writings, each have discussed the prevalent thoughts of their time: Rousseau promoted the intellectual development that flourished during the Enlightenment, while Keats contemplated life through emotional expressions that dominated Romanticism.
In Keats' "Ode on Melancholy," and Rousseau's "Confessions,"…...
mlaBibliography
Keats, J. E-text of "Ode on Melancholy." Available at: http://www.eliteskills.com/c/4355 .
Rousseau, J. E-text of "Confessions." Available at: http://www.swan.ac.uk/poli/texts/rousseau/confa.htm .
Introduction
Several theorists have used social contract theory to understand the government’s role in taking care of the public and addressing the public’s needs. Current political issues offer further examination of social contract theory and how it may help with understanding government obligation and public participation. Rousseau's social contract theory is best and most relevant for understanding and offering solutions to contemporary political issues like mandatory vaccination, taxation, and universal healthcare because it offers a foundation from which to explain the perceived obligations of both the government and the public. Rousseau’s version of social contract theory contrasted against other theorists like Hobbes's and Locke's social contact theories demonstrates how one interpretation of a theory may be better suited for modern political issues over others.
According to social contract theory via Locke’s interpretation, when the government remains unsuccessful in securing natural rights or fulfilling society’s best interest often recognized as the "general will"…...
1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights Rousseau stated in his Social Contract that “Man is born free—and everywhere he is in chains.”[footnoteRef:2] The insistence on man’s nature right of freedom from the Enlightenment Era philosopher helped pave the way for the French Revolution with its insistence on liberty, fraternity and equality. A century and a half later, those same ideals would still hold significant appeal for the Western nations, especially following two World Wars in the 20th century that decimated Europe and parts of Asia. Liberalism was the main driver of the UN’s declaration of human rights—but the coming Cold War, the onset of which was very much in the minds of world leaders immediately following the carve-up of Europe between the unlikely Allies (capitalists in the West, Communists in the East), also played a part in the declaration: the West was anxious to promote itself as the standard bearer of…...
. . while defending these institutions themselves" (1034-1035). Peled further argues that Rousseau was not able to solve this paradox and it was one of the reasons why he became increasingly pessimistic about modernity. But Rousseau's attempts to reconcile the contradiction in his approach are worth looking at in details.
Although Rousseau abhorred inequality that rose out of private property, he did not hold any illusions about modernity. He believed that private property became an essential component of the modern bourgeois society and economic relations in the modern era could not be free from errors and corruption. So, Rousseau thought that the best solution to modern inequality was to allow private property in limited amounts and regulate it through the state that represents the common will. In a perfect society imagined by Rousseau, the state would honor the right to possess private property but at the same time would retain…...
mlaWorks Cited:
Alvarez, Andres and Jimena Hurtado-Prieto. "Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Karl Marx on the Critique of Economics. Some Insights from their Analysis of the Role of Money." Academic paper, Phare, Universite de Paris X -- Nanterre. Available at http://rousseaustudies.free.fr/articleHURTADOALVAREZROUSSEAUMARX.pdf
Bozarth, David. "Rousseau Closer to Marx than to Locke." Academic paper, Sonoma State University (2004, June 15). Available at http://dbozarth.com/Poli_Sci_Notes/Rousseau_Closer_To_Marx_Than_To_Locke.htm
Brenkert, George, G. "Freedom and private Property in Marx." Philosophy & Public Affairs, 8.2 (1979): 122-147. Available at http://www.jstor.org/
Chattopadhyay, Paresh. "Marx's First Critique of Political Economy, 1844-1994." Economic and Political Weekly, 29.31 (1994, Jul. 30): 54-59. Available at
Kant and Rousseau
Reducing Conflicts Between States
The Theories of the Great Philosophers Rousseau and Kant
The great philosophers of the 18th century were the first of their kind to fully encapsulate what it meant to be an ethnocentric state, rather than a simple nation or territory, and also were the first philosophers able to address the question of war between states as not merely individual struggles for dominance, but rather persistent frictions present in the system of states themselves. The formal idea of statehood came of age in the Peace of estphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Year's ar, and affirmed the domination of the central government of each state as the supreme power of the land, rather than any religious or social power. At this time, every state was essentially a dictatorship, and the world was divided into fiefdoms. The peace reached at estphalia created the conditions for two philosophers…...
mlaWorks Cited
Ferraro, V. (n.d.). The ruth c. lawson professor of international politics. Retrieved from http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm
Jones, R. (2008). www.philosopher.org.uk. Retrieved from http://www.philosopher.org.uk/rom.htm .
Munkler, H. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-iraqwarphiloshophy/article_1921.jsp
Rousseau, J.J. (1917). A lasting peace through the federation of europe and the state of war. London, England: Constable and Co. Retrieved from http://oll.libertyfund.org
- these actions are not punished by the law because, while immoral according to many, they do not cause injury to the rights of others.
Adam Smith further emphasizes the centrality of property rights. For Smith, the ownership and acquisition of private property is an essential right that contributes to and maintains individual well-being. Individuals who do not own property are individuals with no real say in their own affairs, and no voice in their government. Smith cites the case of the plebeians in the Roman Empire as an example of a class of people who were purposely kept from ownership of the land as a means of keeping power in the hands of the patricians.
He also makes reference to the slaves of his own day, and to residents of nations where a king may, at his own discretion, dispose of his subjects' property, as examples of conditions under which…...
mlaWorks Cited
http://www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8772886
Kant, Immanuel. Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals. Trans. Thomas K. Abbott. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1949.
A www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10553988
Locke, John. A Letter concerning Toleration. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Liberal Arts Press, 1955.
While it is impossible to escape the similarities between the French Revolution and American Revolution and there is no question that the American Revolution helped inspire the French Revolution, there are a number of important differences between the French and American revolution.
Location was an important difference. America was a colony that was revolting against a ruling government that was separated from it by a large distance, while the French Revolution occurred in France and was aimed at the monarchy in that country.
Social class played a much more important role in the French Revolution than the American Revolution. ....
I. Introduction
A. Definition of the Human Condition
B. Importance of Studying the Human Condition
C. Thesis Statement: Exploring key aspects of the human condition and their significance in shaping human existence.
II. Historical Perspectives on the Human Condition
A. Ancient Philosophical Views (e.g., Aristotle, Plato)
B. Medieval and Renaissance Perspectives (e.g., Thomas Aquinas, Machiavelli)
C. Enlightenment Thinkers (e.g., Rousseau, Hobbes)
III. Psychological Dimensions of the Human Condition
A. Human Emotions and Behavior
B. Cognitive Processes and Perceptions
C. Impact of Social and Environmental Factors
IV. Existential and Philosophical Views
A. Existentialism: Meaning and Purpose
B. Absurdity and Anxiety in Human Existence
C.....
I. Introduction
A. Hook: Begin with a compelling question, anecdote, or statistic that captures the reader's attention and introduces the main topic.
B. Thesis Statement: Clearly state the argument or main idea of the essay, concisely summarizing its focus and scope.
C. Road Map: Provide a brief overview of the essay's structure, highlighting the main sections and their purpose.
II. Body Paragraph 1
A. Topic Sentence: Introduce the first major supporting point that directly relates to the thesis statement.
B. Evidence: Cite specific historical events, documents, or scholarly sources to support the topic sentence.
C. Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports the argument presented in the topic....
The Printing Press and the Dawn of Modernity
Amidst the complexities of history's tapestry, certain events emerge as pivotal catalysts, indelibly shaping the course of human civilization. Among these, the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century stands alone as an epoch-defining innovation. Its profound impact on modernity cannot be overstated, for it not only revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge but also sowed the seeds of countless other societal transformations.
1. The Explosion of Knowledge and Ideas:
Prior to Gutenberg's ingenuity, knowledge was largely confined to the privileged few who possessed access to handwritten manuscripts. The printing press....
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