Roman public architecture contained elements derived from both Greek and Etruscan traditions. Spatially, Roman architecture shows a development from closed, simple space units and regular articulation to more complex spatial relations, more fluid interpenetration of spaces, and more rhythmic organization of space and mass. New materials, such as concrete with brick and stone facing and marble veneers, sculptural decoration, and walls painted with illustration helped to further enhance the early Roman architecture.
A characteristic feature of Roman design was the combined use of arcuated and trabeated construction. Although at first tentatively employed in the spaces between the classical columns, the arch eventually came to be the chief structural element. Flanking columns, usually engaged and superimposed served merely as buttresses or for decoration. The building of Roman architecture was aided after the invention of concrete. Using this material, architects covered vast interior spaces with vaults of increasing complexity and without interior…...

Daniel J. Boorstin, (1992) explains how omans made use of marble, concrete and bricks to hold their structures together, "By the time of Augustus, marble, used in oman buildings mainly in slabs for facing or in decorative fragments for mosaics or pavements, was a material more cosmetic than structural. Like stucco, it covered a solid core of brick and concrete. Yet it was concrete that made ome's grand and distinctive buildings possible. Bricks, one of the most ancient and familiar building materials, when added in the concrete gave character, novelty and grandeur to oman works. Bricks embedded in concrete helped hold together grand new shapes."

Apart from the Colosseum there are several other beautiful buildings in ome that remind us of ancient architects who achieved so much with few resources and facilities. The reason why these buildings have withstood the test of time is because of the use of a special…...

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References

1) Roman architecture., the Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition, 01-01-1993

2) Daniel J. Boorstin, the Creators., U.S. News & World Report, 08-31-1992, pp. 74-103.

3) Yegul, Fikret, Hadrian's Villa and Its Legacy. Vol. 79, the Art Bulletin, 09-01-1997, pp 547(4).

4) Roman Colosseum:  http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Roman_Colosseum.html

The city became filled with triumphal arches commemorating great victories of generals and emperors, like the Triumphal Arches of Titus, Constantine, and Septimus. Thus, in contrast to ancient Greece, civic leaders as well as the gods were consecrated in images near every public dwelling.
Roman building materials were also different. Unlike the Greeks, Roman builders could not use marble all the time, because it had become expensive. But the Romans had developed concrete, in addition to their terracotta, stone and brick. Concrete was another example of a superior Roman technological reform. It was "made by mixing pazzolana, a strong volcanic material with rubble and a mixture of limes. The concrete was used to make walls, domes, vaulted roofs of solid concrete, concrete with brick ribs and faced structure" ("Roman Architecture," Romans Page, 2008).

The use of the arch, along with the development of new building materials enabled Romans to create aqueducts,…...

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Works Cited

Ancient Roman Architecture." Crystal Links. 12 Apr 2008.  http://www.crystalinks.com/romearchitecture.html 

Roman Architecture." Romans Page. 12 Apr 2008.  http://www.iol.ie/~coolmine/typ/romans/archie2.html

St. Madeleine Church
Roman Architecture

Romanesque art and architecture was the true depiction of mediaeval Christian art and was in full boom in the 12th century. The term Romanesque, points to the principal source of the style and the buildings of the Roman Empire. In addition to classical elements, however, Roman church architecture is derived from components of Byzantine and Eastern origin.

French Architecture

French Romanesque architecture is characterized by (French Architecture) 1 various vaulted styles. Provencal churches have pointed domes and facades decorated with tiers of wall arcades filled with sculpture. In the Auvergne region in central France, architects built churches containing a long choir with side aisles and, around the semicircular sanctuary, an arcaded ambulatory semicircular aisle) with radiating chapels. In Burgundy the barrel-vaulted, three-aisled basilica was highly developed.

Norman architects, influenced by Lombardian methods, created an original style with groined vaults supported by flying buttresses, and facades with two high, flanking towers."

St.…...

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Works Cited

French Architecture, http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Workshop/5220/middle/romanesq.html

Vezelay: The Great Romanesque Church,  http://www.frenchculture.org/books/release/art/mouilleron.html 

Vezelay, http://53.1911encyclopedia.org/V/VE/VEZELAY.htm

Eglise St. Madeleine (St. Madeleine Church), http://www.europeguidebook.com/france/regions/northeast/troyes/fr_troyes_poi.cfm

Essay Topic Examples
1. The Architectural Legacy of Roman Aqueducts:
    Explore how Roman aqueducts, masterpieces of engineering that supplied water across the Empire, influenced modern urban water distribution systems. Compare the methodologies and materials used in ancient times with contemporary water management infrastructures, assessing the longevity and sustainability of Roman practices in today's civil engineering projects.

2. The Roman Colosseum: An Inspiration for Modern Stadium Design:
    Analyze the influence of the Roman Colosseum's architectural features on contemporary sports and entertainment venues. Discuss how aspects such as tiered seating, the oval arena, and the intricate system of exits and entries (vomitoria) continue to guide the design principles of modern stadiums.

3. The Enduring Influence of Roman Concrete and Construction Techniques:
    Examine how Roman innovations in concrete technology and construction methods contribute to current building practices. Highlight the development of Roman concrete, its impact on the longevity of Roman structures, and how these ancient techniques…...

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Primary Sources

Vitruvius. De Architectura. Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, Harvard University Press, 1914.

Coulton, J. J. Ancient Greek Architects at Work: Problems of Structure and Design. Cornell University Press, 1982.

MacDonald, William L. The Architecture of the Roman Empire, Volume I: An Introductory Study. Revised Edition, Yale University Press, 1982.

Adam, Jean-Pierre. Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Translated by Anthony Mathews, Routledge, 1999.

Ward-Perkins, John B. Roman Imperial Architecture. Yale University Press, 1981.

After this, there could have been very little perceived threat left; not only were the Carthaginian's surrendering rather peacefully, but they were even giving up their means of waging war effectively. The giving up of weapons in an age when manufacture and shipping -- the two methods by which any commodity, military or otherwise, can be obtained -- took an extended period of time meant that the Carthaginians were showing themselves to desire peace not only in the short-term, but as a general social principle.

Their submission to the Romans, then, should have been the end of the war. If the reason behind Rome's military invasion of the Carthaginian territory was the possible threat the area presented to Rome, then its disarmament would have solved that problem. The Romans refused to let the issue go, however, demanding that the entire city of Carthage be destroyed right to the ground.

It was the…...

Architecture
Naves During the Middle Ages -- Architectural Analysis

Timber Roof

From a structural perspective, the basic timber roof possesses some problems, most notably its relatively flimsy structural integrity. It is easy to construct, requiring less manpower to lift it and to construct its support network, but provides relatively little resistance to the elements of snow and the wind. It is functional in the sense that it performs the sheltering function of shielding the building's inner dwellers, and encloses the building from the open air, but aesthetically is not satisfactory in providing the sense of 'reaching up to the sky' so important in Medieval cathedrals of the era, and of some import in castles and other symbolically significant structures.

Longitudinal barrel vault

This is the simplest form of a vault, consisting of a continuous surface of semicircular or pointed sections. It resembles a barrel or tunnel that has been cut in half lengthwise.

It is more…...

20,21). Romanesque structures tend to be dark and cave-like on the inside. Arches became pointed, rather than rounded as in Roman structures. Gothic architecture represents an advancement in engineering techniques, as builders found that they could do with thinner materials and that roofs could span greater distances. The roofs in Gothic architecture was supported by this new form of arch, rather than by the massive walls, as was done in Romanesque architecture ("Gothic Architecture," pp. 20,21)
Gothic structures sported and increased number of towers, flying buttresses, and decorative designs ("Gothic Architecture," pp. 20,21). Gothic architectures indow openings were adorned with either stained glass or the distinctive Gothic Rose indows. Adornments included human figures, animals, scenes of ordinary life, wars, important events, gargoyles and other mythological creatures. Gothic structures were highly ornate when compared to Romanesque Structures.

Conclusion

Visiting different structures on a trip through Europe can be an exciting adventure. The continent…...

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Works Cited.

"Gothic Architecture." Athena Review. Vol. 4. No. 2.pp. 20,21. <   >. Accessed October 6, 2010.http://www.athenapub.com/14gothic-architecture.htm 

Gothic Art. "Worldly Famous Gothic Cathedrals and Key Characteristics of Gothic Cathedrals." < >. Accessed October 6, 2010.http://www.gothicart.org.uk/characteristics_of_gothic_cathedrals.htm

Sacred Destinations. "Romanesque Architecture." Sacred-Destinations.com. 2010. < >. Accessed October 6, 2010.http://www.sacred-destinations.com/reference/romanesque-architecture

The architects are not simply referencing a general Neoclassical style but evoking specific elements of Roman architectural style that suggested wealth and success.
The Los Angeles Stock Exchange on Spring St. (which no longer houses the stock exchange) includes the neoclassical elements of symmetry and alternating bands of vertical and horizontal elements. It also features three bas-relief panels carved into the granite over the central entrance that reflect Roman and Greek styles of decoration on public buildings. These bas-reliefs, like the carvings on the Continental Building are meant to summon up a certain kind of wealth and triumph, in this case the capitalist economy. Buildings in the Classical world would not have had to be so direct in broadcasting their function and stature. But the architects of this neoclassical building understood that a 20th-century clientele needed more explicit cues (Hickey). Classical buildings shared a common vocabulary that had been lost…...

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Works Cited

Brain, David. Discipline and style. Theory and society 18: 807-868, 1989.

Carlihan, Jean Paul. The Ecole des Beaux-Arts: Modes and Manners. New York: Association

of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, 1979.

Christ, Karl. The Romans. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

An integrated system was used in buildings where columns, pilasters, and entablatures came together as support. Arches were also used in building churches and other such structures. Semi-circular or segmental vaults were used which were mostly without ribs. In this era domes were not only used in churches but they were also used in building secular structures. Doors and windows usually had square lintels in the buildings of the era. Cravings and decorations also became prominent part of the structures taking their inspiration from the classic structures. Though Florence was the place where renaissance started but Italy embraced renaissance and effects of classic architecture as opposed to Gothic architecture. enaissance style further gave way to baroque style in the 17th-century. The Georgian style became notable in the 18th-century while the 19th century was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival.
Conclusions

Though our current architecture is derived by…...

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Reference:

Architecture History'. Wikipedia Encyclopedia. Available at  http://en.wikipedia.org

Piranesi on Architecture:
Argument and Summary

Giovanni Battista Piranesi, a fantastic writer on Roman architecture, argues, against the contemporaries of his time, for this type of architecture. Such contemporaries would state, on Roman architecture, that "there is no composition that is not full of superfluous ornament, and absolutely hors d'oeuvre. Everything is sacrificed for luxury, and in the end one is left with style that quickly becomes ridiculous and barbarous."[footnoteRef:1] However, Piranesi sticks with his taste, and proves, through a dialogue written by the critic himself, the importance of Roman architecture. Thus, this paper will give a brief summary of the afore-mentioned dialogue and the argument presented. [1: Source given by customer -- Thoughts on Architecture by Giovanni Battista Piranesi (Translation by Michaels Nonis and Mark Epstein) ]

The essay presented in this document is called Parere su l'architectura, and provide a clear exposition of the author's thoughts on "ornament and quotation."[footnoteRef:2] According…...

Architecture
Leon attista Alberti and Claude Perrault viewed the beauty and order of architectural in different terms. Alberti's perspective represented the High Renaissance's love of classicism and mathematical precision. Thus, Alberti viewed architectural order and beauty as being rooted in mathematical symmetry and harmony. Perrault, on the other hand, represented a worldview that came two hundred years later, after Europe had already been split apart by the Protestant Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and now embarked upon the Age of Enlightenment (which would lead directly into the Romantic Era). Perrault's perspective was shaped less by the order and mathematical discipline that Alberti associated with architectural order and more by the perception of beauty and the impression of spatial dimension and order. Perrault understand how the Greeks played tricks on the eyes by adhering not to a formulaic structure but rather to a consideration for the viewer, placing columns, for instance, in…...

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Bibliography

Alberti, L.B. (1980) On the Art of Building in Ten Books. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Alberti, L.B., Rykwert, J. (1955) Ten Books on Architecture. UK: Tiranti.

Allais, L. (2005) Ordering the Orders, Future Anterior, 2(2): 53-74.

Ching, F., Jarzombek, M., Prakash, V. (2011) A Global History of Architecture. NY:

3. Curriculum or Method of the Study

The research methodology that was applied in this study was essentially an inclusive, extensive and comparative overview of the literature on the subject. Various sources were consulted, which included books and scholarly articles on the column in architectural history. Also included in the literature survey was information and data from online databases and verified websites.

The information gleaned about columns and their historical context was extrapolated and then entered into a free-from database for further analysis. This resulted in an overall survey of the progression and evolution of various forms and types of columns, from the Egyptian column to the present day. A comparative method of analysis was employed in order to ascertain the commonalities as well as the differences between the various types and forms of this architectural structure.

What should also be mentioned is that the focus of the research, and a factor that…...

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References

Ancient Roman Architecture. Retrieved from  http://www.crystalinks.com/romearchitecture.html 

Architecture of ancient Greece. Retrieved from  http://upge.wn.com/?t=ancientgreece/index12.txt 

Barry C. What Are the Types of Architectural Columns? Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/about_5453707_types-architectural-columns.html

Column: New World Encyclopaedia. Retrieved from  http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Column

Engineering the oman Colosseum
While the Colosseum stands, ome shall stand; when the Colosseum falls, ome shall fall; when ome falls, the world shall fall. -- The Venerable Bede quoting an Ancient Anglo-Saxon Peasant Prophecy

Perhaps the most enduring symbol of the greatness of the oman Empire can be seen today in the ruins of the Colosseum. This massive amphitheatre is situated in the middle of modern ome near the oman Forum and has become an iconic representation of the oman Empire at its zenith. Although estimates vary, analysts believe that at least 50,000 and perhaps as many as 80,000 spectators were accommodated in its capacious dimensions and the Colosseum has become the benchmark by which all subsequent stadia have been judged. Flush with the treasures and riches of Jerusalem, the builders of the Colosseum spared no expense in its design and construction, but despite its impressive seating capacity and functional design,…...

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References

Barbi, Gulomar, "The Colosseum," The World and I, 22(9) (2007, September), 37-40.

Burn, Robert, Roman Literature in Relation to Roman Art, London: MacMillan, 1888.

"Colosseum building materials," The Colosseum [online] available:  

Street in Columbus, Ohio, the humbly named Broad Street Presbyterian Church was built in 1887, but has had several additional architectural elements added since then, including structural and functional spaces beyond the main apse and nave, ranging from a large north side parking area to the multiple annexes and entryways. The Broad Street Presbyterian Church occupies a relatively large footprint, spanning about four acres of urban land. On the south side of the street, the Broad Street Presbyterian Church receives an ample amount of sunlight throughout the day, which gleams and glows as it reflects on its flagstone finish. On its centennial in 1987, the church was formally added to the National Register of Historic Places in spite of its numerous modern additions, solidifying the church in Columbus's urban landscape. In fact, the Broad Street Presbyterian Church shares the street with four other landmark churches in Columbus, all built within…...