Prostate Cancer Issues in Healthcare
Prostate Cancer is a cancer of the prostate which affects men. 190,000 new cases are detected each year in America, making it the most common cancer among men. Additionally, prostate cancer has grown 192% between 1973 and 1992. (PCA)

There are social, environmental and political conditions which currently exist and may affect a prostate cancer victim's access to health care or other services. Some of these issues are very positive while others show that politics and 'political correctness' can sometimes hinder research and cost lives.

American men have a one in two lifetime risk of developing cancer. For women, the risk is one in three." (PCA) However, only one tenth of the American healthcare budget currently goes toward cancer research. The PCA estimates that if cancer were cured today, "the economic value to the United States would exceed $46 trillion, more than the entire financial assets of the…...

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References

Gibson, Steve. (November 16, 2002) "Sacramento Councilman has Prostate Cancer." Sacramento Bee.

International Union of Operating Engineers Local 30. "No Cost Screening for Prostate CancerAvailable During the Month of November. http://www.iuoe30.org/aphw/prostate_screening.htm

PCA Community. "Facts and Statistics: Prostate Cancer." Retrieved November 24, 2002 from National Prostate Cancer Coalition's Website: http://www.4npcc.org/Pca_community_resources/Pca_community_resources_facts_/pca_community_resources_facts_.html.

Prostate Cancer in America
Prostrate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the cancer of the prostate glands. Prostate gland is a small walnut sized organ and an important part of a man's reproductive system. It is one of the most common forms of cancer in men aged above 75 years. The incidence of prostate cancer in men younger than the age of 40 is very rare. High risk population for the prostate cancer include African-American men who have been reported to be prone to developing cancer at any age, men older than 60 years, and men having a family history of prostate cancer especially in father and brothers.

According to the latest statistics by the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI)'s Surveillance Epidemiology and End esults (SEE)'s report, more than 300,000 men in U.S. will be diagnosed with prostate cancer and more than 34000 deaths in men are expected based on prostate cancer. Between 2004 and…...

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References

1. Allen JD, Kennedy M, Wilson-Glover A, Gilligan TD. African-American men's perceptions about prostate cancer: implications for designing educational interventions. Soc Sci Med. June 2007;64(11):2189-200.

2. Farrell HM, Chan CYE, Ladouceur KL, Stein MJ. A Structured Implicit Abstraction Method to Evaluate whether Content of Counseling before Prostate Cancer Screening is Consistent with Recommendations by Experts. Patient Educ Couns. December 2009; 77(3): 322 -- 327.

3. Volk RJ, Spann SJ, Cass AR, Hawley ST. Patient education for informed decision making about prostate cancer screening: a randomized controlled trial with 1-year follow-up. Ann Fam Med. May 2003;1(1):22-8.

4. Maliski SL, Kwan L, Krupski T, Fink A, Orecklin JR, Litwin MS. Confidence in the ability to communicate with physicians among low-income patients with prostate cancer. Urology August 2004;64(2):329-34.

All patients who suffered from inhalation injuries must be given a compulsory bronchoscopic examination so as to reveal the extent of respiratory injury and also to help in planning of the most suitable treatment.

eferences

McCance, K.A. & Huether, S.E. (2010). Pathophysiology: The biologic basis for disease in adults and children (6th ed). St. Louis: Mosby.

Module 8 (B)

Hypovolemic shock

Hypovolemic shock is noted by McCance and Huether (2010) to be an emergency condition in which severe fluid and blood loss makes the victim's heart unable to sufficiently pump enough blood to the victim's body. This kind of shock is noted by McCance and Huether (2010) to result in multiple organ failure.

Brief case scenario presenting a patient who has experienced this type of shock

Mrs. obertson was presented to the hospital with pale skin, was slipping into unconsciousness and sweating very heavily. She had been involved in a motor accident and had suffered massive hemorrhage…...

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References

McCance, K.A. & Huether, S.E. (2010). Pathophysiology: The biologic basis for disease in adults and children (6th ed). St. Louis: Mosby.

Shires, GT (1979).Management of hypovolemic shock. Bull NY Acad Med. 1979 February; 55(2): 139 -- 149.

Worthley, LIG (2000).Shock: A Review of Pathophysiology and Management. Part I. Critical Care and Resuscitation 2000; 2: 55-65

The husband's physical recovery did not indicate the life changes they must contend with. These changes included grief over the loss of intimacy between them, the changes in the nature of their relationship, misguided individual expectations, a lack of interpersonal communication and the lack of professional information to help and enlighten them. The process of trying to recover sexual function led them to seek out many treatment modes. Most of them yielded poor results. Their frustration stole almost all hope for intimacy. Reflecting on the situation led us to realize that we actually lacked individual coping skills, which could restore our relationship to normal (Mooney & Mooney).
Their experience led them to see the importance of family physicians (Mooney & Mooney, 2011). They are a family's most valuable resource before and after surgery on sexual dysfunction and intimacy problems and appropriate interventions. As health practitioners themselves, the authors recommend that…...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bjornes, C.D. (2011). Men with prostate cancer and the accessibility to information -- a literature review. Vol 1 # 2 Open Journal of Nursing: Scientific Research Publishing,

Inc. Retrieved on October 31, 2012 from  http://www.scirp.org/Journal/PaperInformation.aspx?paperID=7680 

Bryat-Lukosius, D., et al. (2010). Evaluating health-related quality o life and priority health problems in patients with prostate cancer: a strategy for defining the role of the advanced practice nurse. Vol 20 # 1 Canadian Oncology Nursing Journal:

PubMed. Retrieved on October 30, 2012 from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/203669640

There are three main treatment options.
For tumors that are still inside the prostate, a surgery called radical prostatectomy and radiation therapy are common treatment options (Prostate cancer treatment options). This source describes these two options. Radical prostatectomy removes the whole prostate gland and the nearby lymph nodes. There are 2 types of radiation therapy, external beam radiation therapy and seed therapy also called brachytherapy. In external beam radiation therapy, radiation is given from a machine like an x-ray machine and in brachytheraphy, radioactive pellets (called "seeds") are injected into the prostate gland. oth types have similar results in curing prostate cancer, but involve different side effects and time commitments from the patient.

"Watchful waiting" and hormones are also treatment options (Prostate cancer treatment options). With "watchful waiting," treatment is not given until the tumor gets bigger. This may be the best option for an older man who has a higher…...

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Bibliography

Bostwick DG (1995). High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia: The most likely precursor of prostate cancer. Cancer. 75: 1823-1836.

Diagnosis (Gleason scores and staging the disease). Prostate Cancer Foundation.  http://www.prostatecancerfoundation.org/site/c.itIWK2OSG/b.47293/k.D232/Diagnosis.htm 

Dreicer, R. Prostate cancer. Cleveland Clinic.  http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/hematology-oncology/prostate-cancer/ 

General information about prostate cancer. National Cancer Institute.  http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/pdq/treatment/prostate/patient

Prostate cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the male reproductive system, and most prostate cancer can be slow growing. However, there are still aggressive type of prostate cancers, because the cancer cells can spread from the prostate of a patient to all other part of the body particularly the lymph nodes and bones. Initially, prostate cancer may reveal no symptom, however, in a later stage, it can cause pain, erectile dysfunction, urinating difficulty, problems in having sexual intercourse and sometimes death. Prostate cancer is common among the older men especially men reaching age of 50 and above, however, the rate of prostate cancer varies across the world. Its widespread is more frequently in Europe and the United States than in the South and East Asia. Globally, "prostate cancer is the 6th leading cause of cancer-related death in men." (Siegel, 2011, p 212). However, the prostate cancer is…...

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Resources Center.

Singh, K. (2011). Molecular Basis of Autophagy-Mediated Resistance to Radiation and Apo2L/TRAIL Therapy in Prostate Cancer Cells. U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Maryland.

Singh, K. Sharma, S. Mir, M.C. et al. (2014). Autophagic flux determines cell death and survival in response to Apo2L/TRAIL (dulanermin). Mol Cancer: 13: 70.

Subramaniam, P. Michela, P. Dennis, S.H. et al. (2013). Compensatory increase in USP14 activity accompanies impaired proteasomal proteolysis during aging. Pub Med Central.

Schwickart M. Huang X. Lill, J.R. et al.(2010) Deubiquitinase USP9X stabilizes MCL1 and promotes tumour cell survival. Nature, 463:103-107.

ats are commonly used for their size (creating the animal-sized scanners is so expensive they are commonly not used in veterinary medicine even for dogs and cats) and the fact that rats breed quickly (PET, 2011, New World Encyclopedia). Lab rats have also been bred to ensure that they have similar enough genetic profiles to the humans the drugs will eventually be used upon, and even more specific populations have been bred to manifest the types of cancers detected by PET scans. Acute toxicity studies are ideally conducted using the means of transmission deployed with the eventual human subjects, which this new technology permits.
According to FDA guidelines, the minimum amount of animals should be used to determine toxicity, contrary to previous ways of determining potential lethality. "Animals should be observed for 14 days after pharmaceutical administration. All mortalities, clinical signs, time of onset, duration, and reversibility of toxicity should…...

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References

CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. (2011). FDA. Retrieved August 19, 2011 at

21  http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=315&showFR=1 

Guidance. (2009). FDA. Retrieved August 19, 2011 at  http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM070306.pdf 

Guidance for industry. (2006). Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER).

Prostrate Cancer Health Disparities Among Blacks
Prostate Cancer Health Disparities among Blacks and Latino Males

Prostrate Cancer Health Disparities among Blacks and Latino Males

Roughly 218,000 males in the United States some time or another are probably going to be diagnosed with prostate cancer this year, and each and every one of someone will have to male extremely personal and individualized assessments regarding treatment decisions and diet and lifestyle modifications. But most significantly, most of these males will probably need to find a strong, well-informed team of doctors, nurses, and other healthcare workers to help escort them through the procedure at each step of the way. However, the roles of family and race history are significant as well. African-American men are 1.7 times more probable to grow prostate cancer related with Caucasian men, and are approximately 2.3 times as probable to die from the ailment (Edwards BK, 2007). Men with a solitary family…...

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Works Cited

Prostate: U.S. Racial/Ethnic Cancer Patterns. (2004, July 4). Retrieved from National Cancer Institute. U.S. National Institutes of Health.:  http://www.cancer.gov/statistics/cancertype/prostate-racial-ethnic .

Barr, J.K.-A. (2008). Reducing disparities in utilization of mamography: Reaching dually eligible women in connecticut. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 26(3), 298-335.

Cancer., A.A. (2004, April 5). African-Americans and Cancer. Retrieved from Houston, Texas: Intercultural Cancer Council:  http://iccnetwork.org/cancerfacts/cfs1 .

disparities., C. h. (2005). National Cancer Institute. U.S. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from Bethesda, Md: gov/newscenter/healthdisparitieshttp://www.cancer.

Prostate cancer is regarded as the most common cancer among men and contributes to annual deaths of approximately 29,000 people in the United States. Actually, it is estimated that close to 60% of elderly men in the United States are suffering from prostate cancer though most of them do not know it. However, many older men are learning about their conditions through new screening tests that have become prevalent in the country. The severity of prostate cancer among many elderly men is attributed to the fact that it generates other conditions that worsens a patient's health. It is estimated that nearly 20% of men with this condition have metastatic disease while others develop metastases regardless of treatment with radiotherapy or surgical procedures.
Most of the elderly men who suffer from prostate cancer have had to make decisions regarding treatment options together with their doctors while facing huge uncertainty about the natural…...

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References

Bolla et. al. (1997, July 31). Improved Survival in Patients with Locally Advanced Prostate

Cancer Treated with Radiotherapy and Goserelin. The New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 295-330. Retrieved from  http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejm199707313370502#t=article 

Hricak, H. (2014, January 28). MR Imaging and MR Spectroscopic Imaging in the Pre-treatment

Evaluation of Prostate Cancer. The British Journal of Radiology, 78(2). Retrieved from  http://www.birpublications.org/doi/abs/10.1259/bjr/11253478?journalCode=bjr

Genitourinary
The wholistic care plan to utilize for this patient is based on the possibility of several diagnoses. The patient may have kidney stones, an infection, or prostate cancer. Each of these possibilities should be checked and ruled off the list, but prior to doing so, some steps must be taken to educate the patient about the causes of his terminal dysuria. The fact that he is being treated for hypertension and hypercholesterolemia suggests that this terminal dysuria may be the result of kidney stones, which have been linked to both hypertension and hypercholesterolemia (Hamano, Nakatsu, Suzuki, Tomioka, Tanaka, Murakami, 2005). However the absence of hematuria would suggest that kidney stones are not the primary cause. Thus the diagnostic workup should consider the hypertension and high cholesterol as well as the swollen boggy prostate plus the terminal dysuria and the lack of blood in the urine. Medications and treatments will be…...

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References

Chou, R. (2011). Treatments for localized prostate cancer. U.S. Preventive Services

Task Force Recommendation Evidence Syntheses, 91.

Hamano, S., Nakatsu, H., Suzuki, N., Tomioka, S., Tanaka, M., Murakami, S. (2005).

Kidney stone disease and risk factors for coronary heart disease. Int J Urology, 12(10): 859-863.

Effectiveness of Mass PSA Testing in Reducing Mortality Rates
Prostate cancer screening is considered as one of the crucial steps towards dealing with the problem of prostate cancer among various patient population. Healthcare providers consider screening as a crucial issue towards improving the health and well-being of patients. In light of the significance of prostate cancer screening in health promotion, several screening tools have been developed and are utilized in the clinical setting such as digital rectal exam (DRE) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing. PSA testing has received considerable attention in the recent past, particularly in relation to its impact on mortality rates. PSA testing/screening for prostate cancer remains a controversial issue in the modern healthcare setting given the variance in evidence on its impact on mortality rates. This paper examines whether PSA testing reduces morality rates based on research evidence or evidence-based practice. The analysis is carried out based on…...

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References

American Cancer Society, Inc. (2017). Key Statistics for Prostate Cancer. Retrieved October 31, 2017, from  

Begley, S. (2017, September 5). Do Prostate Cancer Screenings Significantly Reduce Deaths? Retrieved October 31, 2017, from  https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-prostate-cancer-screenings-significantly-reduce-deaths/ 

Cancer Statistics Center. (2017). 2017 Estimates. Retrieved November 3, 2017, from  https://cancerstatisticscenter.cancer.org/#!/ 

Carter et al. (2011). Recommended Prostate-specific Antigen Testing Intervals for the Detection of Curable Prostate Cancer. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 277(18), 1456-1460.

Gulati, R., Gore, J.L. & Etzioni, R. (2013, February 5). Comparative Effectiveness of Alternative PSA-based Prostate Cancer Screening Strategies. Annals of Internal Medicine, 158(3), 145-153.

Helfand et al. (2013, May). Personalized PSA Testing Using Genetic Variants May Reduce Unnecessary Prostate Biopsies. Journal of Urology, 189(5), 1697-1701.

Howrey et al. (2013, January). The Impact of PSA Screening on Prostate Cancer Mortality and Overdiagnosis of Prostate Cancer in the United States. The Journal of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 68(1), 56-61.

Mitka, M. (2012, January 6). Study: Mass PSA Screening Does Not Reduce Risk of Dying from Prostate Cancer. Retrieved October 31, 2017, from  https://newsatjama.jama.com/2012/01/06/study-mass-psa-screening-does-not-reduce-risk-of-dying-from-prostate-cancer/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/prostate-cancer/about/key-statistics.html 

Care of Patients With Cancer
Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer

Because cancer is a complex disorder that often progresses over long periods of time -- including long periods before an actual diagnosis can be made -- it is very useful to medical practitioners to identify various stages in the progression of the disease. Diagnosis may occur as the result of presenting complaints that cause a patient to seek medical help, or diagnosis may occur when routine check-ups lead to a suspicion by a physician or a laboratory specialist that a more thorough investigation is indicated. Indeed, one of the reasons why certain procedures are included in routine annual physicals is because these tests result in a diagnosis at sufficiently high rates to make them worth conducting. As medical technology advances, the procedures are modified accordingly -- and sometimes the frequency standards for these procedures are modified, as well.

The nomenclature used to indicate…...

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References

Diseases and Conditions: Cancer. Complications. Mayo Clinic Retreived from  http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/basics/complications/con-20032378 

Understanding Your Diagnosis: Staging. American Cancer Society. Retreived from  http://www.cancer.org/treatment/understandingyourdiagnosis/staging

Bacterial vaginosis is one of the major contributors of vaginal infections during pregnancy and accounts for 40% of these cases. Generally, bacterial vaginosis is associated with several obstretic complications like pre-term labor and delivery, untimely rupture of membranes, postpartum endometrisis, and chorioamnionitis (Wang et. al., 2010, p.444). Metronidazole has traditionally been used as the drug of choice in the treatment of bacterial vaginosis because it is an agent of the nitroimidazole antibiotic family. This drug has been used for several decades because it efficiency in treating the condition ranges between 80 and 90% and can be administered across all pregnancy stages while tolerated by pregnant women. The ability of the drug to achieve the high levels of efficacy is attributed to the fact that it can be found in the cord blood, fetal tissue, and amniotic fluid in high concentrations.
The authors of the article reported the findings of two…...

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References:

Academic Press. (2011). Genomics in cancer drug discovery and development. San Diego, CA:

Elsevier Inc.

Becker, C. & Lilja, H. (1997, January 3). Individual Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA) Forms As

Prostate Tumor Makers. Clinica Chimica Acta, 257(1), 117-32.

This is related to bronchitis, asthma and long-term conditions such as lung cancer and bladder cancer (obinson, 2009).
It is estimated that the chances of getting bladder cancer is high for ex-smokers and passive smokers even after thirty years later. This brings us to the question of management of bladder cancer for current and ex-smokers as well as passive smokers.

The management of bladder cancer is a three-pronged approach that involves reducing the progression of the disease, protecting the bladder and increasing the chances of survival. The course of treatment depends to a large extent on the stage of the cancer. During the earlier stages, surgery, trans urethral resection, intravesical chemotherapy and immunotherapy are used to contain the disease and prevent it from progressing further. The malignant areas are treated with one of the above procedures to remove the tumor. In the case of a more advanced stage, radical cystectomy or…...

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References

Cancer Research UK. (2011). Cancer in the UK: April 2011. Retrieved from  http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/mortality/ 

Friedman, Howard. (1990). Personality and Disease. Publisher: New York, John Wiley & Sons.

Abrahamson; Seligman; Teasdale. (1978). Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation. Abnormal Psychology. Vol 87. pp 49-74.

McAllister, Robert. (May 1974). Viral Etiology of Cancer: Two Hypotheses with relevance to chemical exposure. Pediatrics. Vol 53 (5). pp826.

Screening for breast cancer before there are symptoms is very important. Screening helps doctors find and treat cancer in its early stages. Treatment is more likely to be successful when the cancer is detected early. A doctor may suggest any of the following screening tests for breast cancer: screening mammogram, clinical breast exam, beast self-exam (Stoppler, 2009).
Mammograms can often show a breast lump before it can even be felt. A mammogram is a picture of the breast that is made with an x-ray. It can also show a cluster of tiny deposits of calcium. These deposits are known as micro calcifications. Lumps can be from cancer, precancerous cells, or a host of other conditions. Further tests may be needed to find out if abnormal cells are present. Women in their 40s and older should have mammograms every 1 to 2 years (Stoppler, 2009).

During a clinical breast exam the health…...

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References

Cancer Gap Between Whites, Blacks May Be Biological in Part. (2009). Retrieved August 11,

2009, from  http://healthday.com/Article.asp?AID=628785 

Carcinogen Found in KFC's New Grilled Chicken. (2009). Retrieved August 13, 2009, from News and Media Center Web site:  http://www.pcrm.org/news/release090521.html 

National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. (2008). Retrieved August 11, 2009, from American