The nature principle tells us that people will be what they will be, regardless of external factors that went into their prenatal development. The nurture principle states otherwise, and demands that we judiciously examine the inputs that are going into the body of the mother, which go into the body of the developing baby. Detrimental neurobiological effects can arise from substance abuse, such as alcohol, which can result in consequences like Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Additionally, while some substances may seem benign and are even espoused by the established published scientific dogma, like taking folic acid during pregnancy, an informed person would be wise to fully examine the premise and the possible effects of adding such a substance to the body of a pregnant woman. Aside from changing hair color, and perhaps reducing neural tube defects, substances that affect the epigenome are bound to have more global effects. It is…...

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Works Cited

Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). The Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in Early Human Development. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 345-351.

DC, D., D, H., & RL., J. (2007). Maternal nutrient supplementation counteracts bisphenol A-induced DNA hypomethylation in early development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 13056-13061.

Harley, K., & Eskenazi, B. (2006). Time in the United States, social support and health behaviors during pregnancy among women of Mexican descent. Social Science and Medicine, 3048-3061.

Ohlsson, R., Larsson, E., Nilsson, O., Wahlstrom, T., & Sundstrom, P. (1989). Blastocyst implantation precedes induction of insulin-like growth factor II gene expression in human trophoblasts. Development, 555-559.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Facts About Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Everyone Should Know

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) affects newborns causing a lifelong battle and physical defects. FAS is entirely preventable as it is caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy. FAS is a result of lifestyle choices by the mother. FAS is something of which every expectant mother should be aware. Drinking during pregnancy seems harmless to many, particularly if it is just one drink every so often. However, what seems harmless can have devastating effects on the baby that will last the rest of their life.

Symptoms

FAS is a result of alcohol crossing the placental barrier between the mother and the developing baby. The symptoms of FAS include stunted growth, low weight, damage to nerves and brain structures as well as characteristic facial features. A child with FAS often has psychological and behavioral issues as to grow up as well. The most damaging effects from…...

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References

Clarren, S. (2002) Dr. Clarren;s Keynot Address to the Yokin 2002 Prairie Northern Conference

on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. FAS Community Resource Center. Retrieved from  http://www.come-over.to/FAS/Whitehorse/WhitehorseArticleSC1.htm 

Perlstein, D. (2012). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. MedicineNet.com. Retrieved from  http://www.medicinenet.com/fetal_alcohol_syndrome/article.htm

Promoting Healthy Prenatal Development
Prenatal development is divided into three distinct stages these are the zygote, embryo and fetus.in the real sense these three periods are a representation of continuous phases of development during which the developing organism is sustained and protected by amniotic sac, placenta and umbical cord and after the fifth month it undergoes a series of changes to become an increasingly complex and differentiated organism. There are several conditions which influence this prenatal development. The paper will look at tow of these conditions and the potentially significant impact these conditions might have on the development of the child in the uterus and even beyond.

During prenatal development there are agents known as teratogens which can have an influence on the developing child hence producing abnormalities, might have an effect on the growth of the organism leading to physical and mental deviations.

Maternal characteristics

One of these conditions is maternal characteristics. For…...

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References

McGraw-Hill Higher Education.(2003). Prenatal Development and Birth.Retrieved 15 January 2014 from  http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072820144/student_view0/chapter4/ 

Kendra Cherry.(2012.)Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development. Retrieved 15 January 2014 from v

Women who drink alcohol during pregnancy risk the health of the fetus and implicitly, the health of the child after birth. There are few studies made on humans in what concerns alcohol and interferences in prenatal development. That is why research is primarily based on animal studies. It is difficult to determine the exact amount of alcohol that can influence the fetus' development in a negative way and that is way women who plan to have a baby or women who found out that are pregnant should stop drinking during their pregnancies. Some of the most important consequences of severe exposure to alcohol during pregnancy are fetal alcohol syndrome or the death of the fetus. These two, are not the only negative effects that the alcohol has on prenatal development. The brain of the fetus and the healthy development of the fetus' body are also affected by alcohol.
When a pregnant…...

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References:

1. Effects of alcohol on a fetus, Retrived December 4, 2012, from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration website: http://fasdcenter.samhsa.gov/documents/WYNK_Effects_Fetus.pdf

2. Kathleen R. Stratton, Cynthia J. Howe, Frederick C. Battaglia, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Division of Biobehavioral Sciences and Mental Disorders. Committee to Study Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (U.S.), Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment, National Academies, April 1, 1996

Drug Use During Pregnancy
There is no point within the study of human biology that is more awesome than the conception and development of a child. It is during this time that most people would say the most amazing work of the lord become evident, in abundance.

Let the children come to me, and do not hinder them; for to such belongs the kingdom of heaven." (Mk. 10.13, 1952, p. 23)

It is within this process of gestation that hundreds of thousands of errors can be made by the body, the genes or other outside forces, and within those potential glitches there are a multitude of manifestations that can become apparent within the development of the fetus and later the child. Within this process there are many points where there is proof of the divine plan, because so many things can go wrong and statistically they rarely do. Yet, despite the intentions of…...

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References

1952). The Holy Bible, Containing the Old and New Testaments: Revised Standard

Version (Rev. ed.). Toronto: Thomas Nelson & Sons.  

These programs include the service of a registered dietician. (Monti, 2006) These and other programs and research adds to the insight and knowledge about prenatal nutrition that offer a valuable resource and knowledge base for the professional nurse.
eferences www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77033875

Brody, N. (1995). Beyond Family Influences. Psychological Inquiry, 6(2), 142-145. etrieved February 20, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77033875

Dolby V. (1998) Practice good prenatal nutrition, for baby's sake. Better Nutrition,

Eriksson J.G., Forsen T., Tuomilehto J, Winter P.D., Osmond C. And Barker D.

J.P. (1999) Catch-up growth in childhood and death from coronary heart disease: longitudinal study. BMJ, 318, 427-431.

McCollister, B. (2001) the Social Necessity of Nurturance. Humanist, 61 (1).

A www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023613182

Mead, M.N. (2007). You Are What Your Mother Ate. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(10), 492+. etrieved February 20, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023613182

Monti, Davorka (2003) Not so Common Nutrition Exercises for Your Childhood

Education Classes. International Journal of Childbirth Education, 17 (4).

Monti, D. (2006) Community Nutrition…...

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References www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77033875

Brody, N. (1995). Beyond Family Influences. Psychological Inquiry, 6(2), 142-145. Retrieved February 20, 2008, from Questia database:  

Prenatal Testing
For many people, prenatal testing has opened many opportunities to treat potential illnesses and to save lives. Administering tests that involve visualization, ultrasounds and amniocentesis allow physicians and parents to identify illnesses and disabilities in children even before birth. More advanced surgical techniques have been used to treat babies even before they are born.

Many others, however, have expressed concern over the ethical implications of prenatal testing. hile the treatment of diseases is a noble cause, many ethicists worry that prenatal testing will lead to a de facto form of eugenics. In these cases, prenatal testing could be used to screen out mild disabilities and other non-life threatening conditions.

This paper looks at the social implications of prenatal testing, with a particular emphasis on the definitions of disability and preferred genetic makeup. The first part is a look at the reasons why parents avail of prenatal testing techniques. These range from…...

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Works Cited

Allen, Garland E. "Is a New Eugenics Afoot?" Science. 2001. Proquest Database.

Anderson, Gwen. "Nondirectiveness in Prenatal Genetics: Patients Read Between the Lines." Nursing Ethics. 1999: 126-129.

Genetic Testing and Screening." Bioethics for Students: Issues in Medicine, Animal Rights, and the Environment. 4 vols. Macmillan, 1999. Reproduced in Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale Group. 2004 http://0-galenet.galegroup.com.catalog.houstonlibrary.org:80/servlet/OVRC

Suter, Sonia Mateu. "The routinization of prenatal testing." American Journal of Law and Medicine. Boston: 2002. Proquest Database.

Moreover, some genetic testing is inaccurate, creating the possibility of false positives and false negatives.
The second problem with genetic testing is that it can provide information about diseases where there is no treatment or intervention. This is the case for Tay-Sachs. There is no way to prevent the disease, which is fatal in children. However, unlike some other genetic disorders, the baby is born healthy and begins to deteriorate sometime after birth. Does knowing that the child will develop the disorder help the family, when prenatal screening does nothing to help treat the child?

The third problem with genetic testing is that it may lead people to make undesired choices. Abortion rates for children with genetic diseases are higher than those rates for children without those diseases. Abortion is a major moral issue in the United States. Does a process that might increase the likelihood that a mother will choose…...

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References

National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke (2007, Feb. 14). NINDS Tay-Sachs

Disease Information Page. Retrieved from  http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/taysachs/taysachs.htm 

National Tay-Sachs & Allied Diseases. (2011). Tay Sachs Disease. Retrieved from  http://www.ntsad.org/index.php/tay-sachs 

Sheth, K. (2010, Nov. 17). Tay-Sachs disease. Retrieved August 13, 2011, from PubMed

Teratogens and Fetal Development
Teratogens can be described as agents that contribute to fetal injury and birth defects or an abnormality because of fetal exposure during pregnancy. Some of these agents that lead to fetal injury or birth defects include chemicals, environmental contaminants, infections, and drugs. These agents tend to result in such abnormality in fetal development when a woman is exposed to them during the term of the pregnancy. The agents are always discovered following an increased prevalence of a specific birth defect or abnormality. Pregnant women are increasingly susceptible to teratogens since these agents can be found in various settings at home in the working environment. Notably, the effect of the agents on fetal development is dependent on the kind of agent, duration, and extent of the exposure. Generally, teratogens and fetal development can be about legal and/or illegal drugs and the effects on the fetus while in uterus…...

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References

Aboubakr et. al. (2014). Embryotoxic and Teratogenic Effects of Norfloxacin in Pregnant

Female Albino Rats. Advances in Pharmacological Sciences, 2014, 1-6.

Bercovici, E. (2010). Prenatal and Perinatal Effects of Psychotropic Drugs on Neuro-cognitive

Development in the Fetus. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 11(2), 1-20.

Often, many at-risk parents have fewer social networks, and this can help contribute to child abuse after the child is born. Creating social networks, as well as a safe environment for parents to ask questions and gain knowledge should be the goal of any good prenatal support group.
In addition, many prenatal support programs include or consist of home visitation by either a qualified nurse or social worker (or both), that discuss parenting techniques and challenges, while monitoring the health of the new infant and the mother. These home visitation programs have been proven to help reduce child abuse. One study notes, "For mothers, long-term effects of home visitation include fewer subsequent pregnancies, decreased use of welfare, and fewer verified incidents of child abuse and neglect" (Hammond-atzlaff, and Fulton 435). Thus, the home visitation programs, whether a family is at-risk or not, can help reduce and prevent child abuse, and…...

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References

Editors. "Child Abuse Prevention Tips." PreventChildAbuse.org. 2007. 30 April 2008. http://member.preventchildabuse.org/site/DocServer/an_approach_to_prevention.pdf?docID=121

Hammond-Ratzlaff, Amy, and Arlene Fulton. "Knowledge Gained by Mothers Enrolled in a Home Visitation Program." Adolescence 36.143 (2001): 435+.

Glossary

Emotional regulation -- the ability to control one's emotions so that they are within the "average" for the population surrounding them

In-utero- while the child is developing in the woman's uterus

Schizophrenia -- a serious mental illness affecting the person's perceptions of the world around them

Stimuli -- an input from a person's environment, something that the person experiences

eferences

Braungart-ieker, J., Hill-Soderlund, a. & Karrass, J. (2010). Fear and Anger eactivity Trajectories From 4 to 16 Months: The oles of Temperament, egulation, and Maternal Sensitivity. Developmental Psychology. 46 (4), 791-804.

Corapci, F., Calatroni, a. & Kaciroti, N. et al. (2009). Longitudinal Evaluation of Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems Following Iron Deficiency in Infancy. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. etrieved November 29, 2010 from http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2009/09/07/jpepsy.jsp065.full.pdf+html

DiGirolamo, a. & amirez-Zea, M. (2009). ole of zinc in maternal and child mental health. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 89 (30), 940S-945S.

Lozoff, B., Beard, J. & Connor, J. et al. (2006). Long-lasting…...

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References

Braungart-Rieker, J., Hill-Soderlund, a. & Karrass, J. (2010). Fear and Anger Reactivity Trajectories From 4 to 16 Months: The Roles of Temperament, Regulation, and Maternal Sensitivity. Developmental Psychology. 46 (4), 791-804.

Corapci, F., Calatroni, a. & Kaciroti, N. et al. (2009). Longitudinal Evaluation of Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems Following Iron Deficiency in Infancy. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. Retrieved November 29, 2010 from  http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2009/09/07/jpepsy.jsp065.full.pdf+html 

DiGirolamo, a. & Ramirez-Zea, M. (2009). Role of zinc in maternal and child mental health. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 89 (30), 940S-945S.

Lozoff, B., Beard, J. & Connor, J. et al. (2006). Long-lasting neural and behavioral effects of iron deficiency in infancy. Nutritional Review. 64,34 -- 44.

So, in those regards the curriculum is slowly catching up with the times. Personally, I would like to see additions such as a playing of the movie, "The Business of Being Born" at one of the sessions or as homework.
The second way that the curriculum should change within the next three years is to begin allowing more nurses to become certified teachers. Currently, it is easier for a parent to become a coach than it is for a nurse. The reason, according to Bradley, is that the parents have direct experience, whereas nurses only have book-related experience. In fact, Bradley does offer the option for nurses to become a teacher, but additional reading and exam requirements must be met.

Personally, I find it to be in the best interest of Bradley to offer their curriculum with open arms to nurses for one simple reason: the more nurses who know about…...

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Works Cited

Halfon, Saul (2010). Encountering Birth: Negotiating Expertise, Networks, and My STS Self. Science as Culture, 19(1), 61-77.

Hathaway, Marjie; et al. (2007). The Bradley Method Student Workbook. American Academy of Husband Coached Childbirth.

Lake, Rikki (2008). The Business of Being Born. Barranca Productions.

Lieberman, Adrienne (1992). Easing Labor Pain: The Complete Guide to a More Comfortable and Rewarding Birth. The Harvard Common Press, Boston.

Infancy is the stage between birth and two years of age. This stage is characterized by rapid physical growth than any other stage of life. Very interesting changes occur in this couple of years. Brain development also occurs rapidly at this stage. Prior to birth, the unborn baby has most of the brain cells, but not all. There is a very rapid development of the neural connections between the cells. Contrary to what most people think, the baby is not entirely helpless. It is capable of all the basic activities required to sustain life -- breathing, suckling, swallowing and excretion. By the first week, the newborns can identify the direction from which sound is coming, recognize the voice of the mother from other voices and is capable of simple imitating basic gestures such as opening the mouth and sticking out the tongue (Shaffer & Kipp, 2013).
Physical Changes

Reflexes (automatic in built…...

The program includes five components namely 'Family Support', 'Maternal Interview', 'Records review', 'case review' and 'Community action'. (FIMR, 2010)
The FIMR Process

FIMR Informed of Fetal/Infant Death

Family Support

Data Collection/Record Review

Maternal Interview

Records Review

Case Review

Community Action

Improved Maternal & Infant Health

(FIMR)

Conclusion

Fetal origins of health and disease has developed into a new medical frontier for researchers. The growing body of research evidence has affirmed positive associations between the gestational environment and the development of various physical and mental disorders in the infant, adolescent and the adult population. The new knowledge that even gestational diet composition has the ability to alter the human epigenome resulting in the expression of undesirable genes and the onset of obesity, diabetes, cancer and other chronic health conditions, is convincing scientific evidence for pregnant women to be careful and cautious in their diet choices. Results from the studies on maternal stress and its impact on postnatal temperament have provided further evidence…...

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Bibliography

1) Annie Murphy Paul, (Nov 4-2010), "How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life," TIME, retrieved Dec 3rd 2010, from,  http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2020815-1,00.html 

2) Barry E. Levin. (July 2006) " Metabolic Imprinting: Critical Impact of the perinatal environment on the regulation of energy homeostasis," Biol Sci. 29; 361(1471)

3) Irwing B. wiener & Richard M. Lerner et.al (2003), "Handbook of Psychology: Developmental Psychology," John Wiley & Sons

4) Kjersti M. Aagaard-Tillery, Kevin Grove, & Jacalyn Bishop et.al (Aug 2008), "Developmental Origins of Diseases and Determinants of chromatin Structure: Maternal diet modifies the Primate fetal epigenome," J. Mol Endocrinol 41 (20) 91 -- 102

An initial psychotic episode is often the result, with immediate in-hospital treatment recommended for testing and observation. Treatment includes anti-psychotic medication and patients often respond well, particularly in milder cases of the illness. (Csernansky, 2001) However, a general inability to adapt socially will persist and prevent a "normal" existence for these individuals. In one case, a female patient described her general personality despite medication as characterized by "low self-esteem, hypersensitivity to criticism, hyperempathy, excessive generosity, susceptibility to manipulation, and social awkwardness" (eichenberg-Ullman, 2010). In addition, substance abuse, inability to hold a job, risk of suicide, and unwanted pregnancy are typical themes in these patients' lives. (Csernansky, 2001) in the case of pregnancy, females often suffer complications beyond their mental illness, such as poor prenatal care, risk of violence during pregnancy, and reduced likelihood of having a male supportive figure (staff, 2007)
In the middle phase of schizophrenia, or the first…...

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References

Collier, E. (2007). Challenging the concept of "burned out" schizophrenia. Mental Health Nursing, 14.

Csernansky, J.G. (2001). Schizophrenia: A New Guide for Clinicians. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Heinrichs, R.W. (2001). In Search of Madness: Schizophrenia and Neuroscience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nicole, V. (2007, 11-21). Schizophrenia and Pregnancy: Genetic Links and Effects. Retrieved 11-24, 2010, from www.associatedcontent.com:  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/454786/schizophrenia_and_pregnancy_genetic_pg2.html?cat=70

Developmental Psychology: A Comprehensive List of Essay Topics

Cognitive Development

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: An Examination of its Stages and Implications
Information Processing in Children: How Age and Experience Shape Cognitive Function
Language Development and the Role of Environment: Exploring the Interplay of Nature and Nurture
Cognitive Biases in Children and Adolescents: The Impact of Cognitive Immaturity on Decision-Making
The Development of Memory in Infancy: How Early Experiences Influence Retrieval and Recognition

Social and Emotional Development

Attachment Theory: Bowlby's and Ainsworth's Perspectives: Implications for Infant-Caregiver Relationships
Socialization and the Development of Prosocial Behavior: How Children Learn to Cooperate and Share
Moral....

The study of human pregnancy advances our understanding of heredity and genetics in several ways.

1. Inheritance of traits: The study of human pregnancy allows researchers to observe how traits are passed from parents to their offspring. By studying prenatal development, scientists can identify specific genetic factors that contribute to certain traits or disorders.

2. Genetic disorders: Pregnancy research helps identify potential genetic disorders that may affect the developing fetus. This allows healthcare providers to counsel and support couples who may be at risk of passing on certain genetic conditions to their children.

3. Epigenetics: The study of human pregnancy has shed light....

Skeletal Hand Development Stages and Age Determination in Forensic Anthropology
Skeletal hand development stages are valuable indicators for age determination in forensic anthropology. By analyzing the developmental morphology of hand bones, forensic anthropologists can estimate the age of an individual, providing crucial information for medico-legal investigations and anthropological research.
Prenatal Development
Hand development begins during the embryonic period. During the first trimester, the fundamental skeletal structures of the hand, including the carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges, are formed. By the end of the first trimester, the hand has acquired its basic architecture.
Infancy and Childhood
After birth, the hand continues to develop rapidly. The carpals gradually....

Bipedalism and Its Adaptations:

Upright posture: Humans stand upright, freeing their hands for tool use and other complex activities.
Curved spine: The S-shaped spine absorbs shock and provides flexibility for mobility.
Pelvic girdle: The wide and bowl-shaped pelvis supports the body and allows for childbirth.
Knee joint: The unique structure of the knee allows for both extension and flexion, enabling diverse locomotor patterns.

Encephalization and Cognitive Capabilities:

Large brain: Humans have the largest brain relative to body size among primates.
Developed cerebral cortex: The highly convoluted cerebral cortex, particularly the frontal lobes, enables advanced cognitive functions such as problem-solving, decision-making, and....