ccording to Hammond, "Studies show there is a 40% chance that burglaries and other nonviolent crimes are being committed by someone who already has committed a violent crime, perhaps even murder" (p. 12).
Other useful applications that have been identified for DN analyses include resolving missing or unidentified people cases and the U.S. Department of Justice continues to collaborate with state and local law enforcement agencies for these applications. Beyond the foregoing uses, DN analyses can also help prove the innocence of suspects as well as wrongfully convicted individuals who are incarcerated, a trend that has helped exonerate a growing number of individuals in recent years. Taken together, DN testing can help identify criminals and even human remains with a high degree of certainty, as well as ensure that people who have inadvertently become entangled in the criminal justice system are not wrongfully convicted. The author, though, does not include…...

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Article No. 3: Fillichio, C. (2005). Getting ahead of the curve: Baltimore and CitiStat; CitiStat maximizes Baltimore's efficiency by using data from the city's 311 call center to manage agencies and adjust performance as necessary. The Public Manager, 34(2), 51-53.

The article was an excellent example of using existing it resources to gain the maximum value for law enforcement efforts as possible. The author notes that the city of Baltimore was experiencing an inordinately high crime rate and departmental budgets had been adversely affected by dwindling personal income and home values that had eroded the city's tax base. Therefore, the acquisition of expensive it resources was not feasible, but the city already had some it resources in use that were not being applied to law enforcement activities. As a result, the Baltimore police department adapted CompStat which could use the city's it resources to track areas with high crimes rates including assaults, burglaries and murders, that allowed a more efficient use of law enforcement resources. Since its inception in mid-2000, the application has grown to include data input from almost two dozen city agencies, with much of the data being routinely provided by these agencies anyway. Likewise, the CompStat application draws on archived digitized records as well as the city's 311 call manager operation to identify problem areas and allocate resources effectively.

The results of this initiative have been impressive. The low-cost approach to using existing it resources and information has resulted in a 48% reduction in violent crime, a trend that has continued since the city's adoption of the CompStat system to the point where Baltimore now leads the nation in violent crime reduction. The CompStat approach has also improved the administrative functions of the city's law enforcement agencies, including activities that were previously performed manually such as payroll, sick and accident leave, and overtime. Other uses for the CompStat system have also been used by the police in Baltimore to facilitate the towing of abandoned vehicles (which has increased by 22%) and the eradication of gang-related graffiti (by 2002, the city was removing four times as much graffiti as it was able to in 2000). Taken together, the police leadership in Baltimore has proven to be an excellent steward of the scarce resources it is provided by using existing it systems and information in innovative ways to fight crime and improve the quality of life for all citizens in the city. A valuable addition to this analysis would be a current snapshot of how Baltimore is faring with its CompStat approach to fighting crime with information technology.

Police Intelligence: apidly Changing the Way Police Organizations Fight Crime
Since the professional era of policing, the traditional role of the police officer in the United States has primarily been that of crime fighter. Law enforcement officers detect and arrest offenders to keep the public safe and until relatively recently, the job was pretty straightforward. The officer would walk his beat, talking to the community and acting to reassure them. If a crime occurred, the officer would react by attempting to catch the offenders after the crime had occurred. An officer's discretion dictated whether an arrest would be made or not. In the first half of the twentieth century the effectiveness and conduct of police were highly variable, and not only from city to city, but within the various precincts, neighbourhoods and beats that made up a particular city. American law enforcement agencies of this time period could be characterized as…...

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References

Angell, J. (1971). Toward an alternative to the classic police organizational arrangement: A democratic model. Criminology, 8, 185-206.

Braga, A.A. (2008). Police enforcement strategies to prevent crime in hot spot areas. Center for Problem Oriented Policing, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved April 1, 2009, from  http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/RIC/Publications/e040825133-web.pdf 

Bratton, W., and Knobler, P. Turnaround: How New York's top cop reversed the crime epidemic. New York: Random House.

Bureau of Justice Assistance. (1994). Understanding community policing: A framework for action. Washington D.C.: BJA Clearinghouse.

Police Function
The Functions of Policing at the Local, State and Federal Levels

The functions of police work are highly complex and filled with myriad unpredictable challenges. Officers must place their safety and their lives at risk every day in the interests of maintaining order, protecting the pubic and apprehending law-breakers. The result is an occupation that is filled with stressors, pressures and dangers. One way that the structure of modern police-work helps officers to contend with these conditions is through the division of jurisdictions. American law enforcement is a sector comprised of many interdependent and overlapping agencies. And correspondent to the broader structure of American governance, this overlapping is somewhat hierarchical in nature, with jurisdictions generally determined by the unit of civil incorporation with which a precinct or department is affiliated. Therefore, at the local, state and federal level, responsibilities are generally divided among these different types of policing agencies even…...

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Works Cited:

Gaines, L.K. & Kappeler, V.E. (2011). Policing in America. Elsevier.

Kappeler, V.E. & Gaines, L.K. (2009). Community Policing: A Contemporary Perspective. Elsevier.

Wright, A. (2002). Policing: An Introduction to Concepts and Practices. Taylor & Francis U.S..

Intelligence Unit Memo
Police Chief I.B. Friendly

Incorporating Intelligence Unit into Department

In modern law enforcement, the sophistication of modern criminal activity, particularly post-September 11th, causes a necessary paradigm shift for 21st century police departments. This shift requires that departments rethink the power of information -- the manner in which it is collected, analyzed, and then used to fulfill the goals of the department. In fact, in 2007, the National Strategy for Information Sharing released by the hite House describes the need for fusion information centers as a vital way to succeed in modern law enforcement and critical to the safety of the local community as well as the nation (Porter, 2008).

Historical Background - Prior to 1960, even large, urban Police Departments did not have intelligence units. Resources were combined so that Detectives were at the hierarchy of information analysis; and every member of the department was open to gleaning information. Information was…...

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Works Cited

Corrections - Report of the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. (1973, March). Retrieved from ncjrs.gov:  http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=10865 

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2011, June). Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System. Retrieved from FRI.gov:

police adopted intelligence-Led policing? What are the problems associated with its implementations?
Over time, policing methods have advanced, with the most recent strategy in improving response time of police being intelligence-led policing (or ILP). ILP is still in its initial developmental stages, is still not wholly understood, and has not yet been adopted by all agencies (Taylor, Kowalyk and Boba 2007). Studying police managers' views and attitudes can help recognize obstacles. Depending on findings of research, when initiating this strategy, top police officers obtain the information required for foreseeing problems and understanding supervisors' mind-set. Strategy transformations spring from shifts in objectives. For instance, London's Metropolitan police was organized by Sir obert Peel for focusing not on response, but on prevention of crime (Johnson 1988). Improvements were generated through technological advances like automobiles and telephones. These improvements served to lessen response time, as well as expand an officer's patrol coverage (Phillips…...

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References

Anderson, R 1994, "Intelligence-led policing: A British perspective," in A Smith(ed) Intelligence-led policing: International perspective on policing in the 21st Century, Lawrenceville, NJ: International Association of Law Enforcement intelligence Analyst.

Anderson, R 1997, "Intelligence-led policing: A British Perspective," In Intelligence-led policing: International Perspective on policing in the 21st Century: Lawrenceville, NJ: International Association of Law Enforcement Intelligence Analyst.

Bennett, T 1994, 'Community policing on the ground: developments in Britain,' in D.P. Rosenbaum(ed) The challenge of community policing: Testing the promises, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.

Carter, DL and Carter, JG 2009, "Intelligence-Led Policing: Conceptual and Functional Considerations for Public Policy," Criminal Justice Policy Review 20, no. 3: 310-325

6). The question then becomes, who protects the American public from the CICC?"
Currently law enforcement groups at all levels are protective of the information singularly gathered. If these groups were to share all information at every level the information, whether true or not, can be used in a manner that would take away the constitutional right of American citizens to be considered innocent until proven guilty. In today's world of capable technology assisting law enforcement, analysis of criminal intent and mischief is readily available to all entities.

Sharing the resulting information from such analysis with all other law enforcement will open the door to mismanagement and corruption. Such corruption is already evident in many law enforcement entities and to provide them with additional cannon fodder would be a huge mistake.

orks Cited

Criminal Intelligence Sharing: A national plan for intelligence-led policing at the local, state and federal levels (2002)

http://www.theiacp.org/documents/pdfs/Publications/intelsharingreport.pdf, Accessed December 15,…...

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Works Cited

Criminal Intelligence Sharing: A national plan for intelligence-led policing at the local, state and federal levels (2002)

  Accessed December 15, 2007http://www.theiacp.org/documents/pdfs/Publications/intelsharingreport.pdf ,

Police Psychology
Scenario:

You are a police psychologist for a major metropolitan area. You are also a member of its hostage negotiation team. You have been called to a crisis incident at 3:15 P.M. On a Friday. It is in a residential area about three blocks from a middle school and a public library. The information you have at this time is that the subject is a 42-year-old male who is holed up in his house with his wife, son, and a family friend. He has murdered his next-door neighbor and is threatening to kill those in the house if his demands are not met. One of his demands is for immunity from the murder charge if he surrenders without harming any of the people in the house. His other demands are a case of beer and some fast food. He wants his demands met or "something will happen."u

Introduction

The crisis negotiation team…...

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Works Cited

Alaxander, D., & Klein, S. (2010). Hostage-taking: motives, resolution, coping and effects. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 176-183.

Cooper, H. (1981). Hostage-takers. Retrieved from National Criminal Justice Reference Service:  https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=75936 

Goldaber, I. (1979). Typology of Hostage-Takers. Police Chief, 21-23. Retrieved from Hughes, J. (2009). A Pilot Study of Naturally Occuring High-Probability Request Sequences in Hostage Negotiations. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 491-496.

McMains, M., & Mullins, W. (2010). Crisis Negotiation (4th ed.). New Providence: Lexis/Nexis/Anderson.

At this time there is no uniform consensus about what agencies have authority in the Middle East. The Dubai police are working with agencies including the Department of Homeland Security to establish a more democratic policing system. Despite their best efforts however, there still exist many groups within the Middle East that adopt radical approaches to policing. Not every agency agrees on uniform democracy, and some still prefer an authoritarian approach to policing (Exum, 2006, p. 1). This can and often does lead to greater violence within the region, with in many cases people living within the regions of the Middle East still lacking freedom of expression and living in fear of violent punishment for any crimes committed.
As Exum (2006) noted in his overview of policing in the Middle East, a bus driver was at one point withdrawn from his vehicle and beaten as well as sodomized as a…...

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References

Exum, Andrew. (2006). "Hizballah at War: A Military Assessment." The Washington

Institute for Near/East Policy, Accessed 3, May 2007:  http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2574 

Institute of Race Relations. (2007). "The politics of fear: Civil society and the security state." Institute of Race Relations, Accessed 3, May 2007:

http://www.irr.org.uk/2004/june/ak000011.html

Conclusion:

The police adapting to rapid changes in technology is felt in two ways -- primarily in using the technology that comes with new inventions for the police like better weapons, communication networks and so on for which they have to be thoroughly trained. The specialist has also to be trained in many issues like cyber crimes, and use of sophisticated computers and machines for crime. Police with an up-to-date mass communication system can be easily mobilized and can have faster response to events. The negative aspects of technology cannot be wished away and there must be research done to overcome these defects in communication with the public and also reliance must be placed on more robust methods of data access.

eferences

Buzawa, Carl G; Buzawa, Eve S. (1992) "Domestic Violence: The Changing Criminal

Justice." Auburn House: Westport, CT.

Couldry, Nick; Mccarthy, Anna. (2004) "Mediaspace: Place, Scale, and Culture in a Media

Age." outledge: New York.

Davis,…...

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References

Buzawa, Carl G; Buzawa, Eve S. (1992) "Domestic Violence: The Changing Criminal

Justice." Auburn House: Westport, CT.

Couldry, Nick; Mccarthy, Anna. (2004) "Mediaspace: Place, Scale, and Culture in a Media

Age." Routledge: New York.

Policing Challenges
Challenges to policing in the 21st century

Policing has taken a different dimension from the traditional policing habits of maintaining law and order and combating the usual crimes to handling new forms of crime, which can be termed as white collar crimes. The society is faced with criminal activities which are as a result of the advanced level of technology use across the globe. The 21st century criminals are not the hardcore type law breakers but very intelligent individuals who are well informed and highly educated, they use very sophisticated systems to execute several crimes in different parts of the world as more people are embracing the use of technology in their day-to-day life (Interpol, 2012). This is an era where the criminals are technologically savvy and use this as a tool to commit crimes without the use of force or inflicting any bodily harm to the victims but their…...

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References

Patricia Linn, (1999). what are the five types of Crimes. Retrieved April 3, 2012 from http://www.ehow.com/list_7245606_five-types-crime_.html.

Interpol, (2012). Cyber Crimes. Retrieved April 3, 2012 fromhttp://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Cybercrime/Cybercrime.

Police eform in Post-Authoritarian Brazil
A majority of new democracies entail an unbelievable illogicality of an immensely feeble citizenship coalesced with a stern description of the constitutional guarantees. In order to explicate this disparity it would be prudent to contemplate the significance of political institutions regarding representation of citizen, which were prevalent subsequent to the military establishments attributed as troublesome and a majority of the new restrictions. A few defined in the autocratic establishment, were implemented by quite a few new establishments prominently by the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 (Pinheiro, 1996).

The prominence out of such institutions of Brazil were the excessive illustration of lesser populated regions on the contrary to the regions with greater population: Sao Paulo in recent times incorporates 60 Congressmen (which is analogous to 11.9% of the entire constituents of a Congress) depicting a voting strength of 20,774,991. This strength makes up 21.9% of the entire voting population…...

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References

Amnesty International (2002). 'Subhuman': Torture, overcrowding and brutalization in Minas Gerais police stations. London, Amnesty International.

Bailey, Willian C. 1984. "Poverty, Inequality and City Homicides Rates." Criminology. Vol. 22. no0 4. November.

Beato F., C.C. Accion y Estrategia de las Organizaciones Policiales In: Policia, Sociedad y Estado: Modernizacion y Reforma Policial en America del Sul.1 ed.Santiago: Centro de Estudios del Desarrollo, 2001a, p. 39-56.

Beato F., Claudio Chaves, Renato Martins Assuncao, Braulio Figueiredo Alves da Silva, Frederico Couto Marinho, Ilka Afonso Reis, Maria Cristina de Mattos Almeida. 2001. "Conglomerados de homicidios e o trafico de drogas em Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil, de 1995 a 1999." Cadernos de Saude Publica. Rio de Janeiro: v.17, n.5, p.1163-1171, 2001b.

Police
Law enforcement agencies, or the police force, operate on several jurisdictional platforms within the United States. In general, their primary mandate is to help maintain societal order and the rule of law by assisting subjects with legal compliance, protecting property, helping to keep citizens and property safe and secure, and for assistance in extraordinary events. The police force is part of the social order of society and mediates public events, pre-empts anti-social behaviors, helps mitigate potential dangers at large events, works with other agencies in general search and rescue, crowd control, regulations, education and awareness campaigns, and to support the rule of law (Cole, 2004). Under the rubric of law enforcement, there are three major categories of police: Federal, Local and State.

Local law enforcement provides routine and micro-policing to the communities within their jurisdiction. This may include traffic enforcement, criminal investigations, local laboratory or forensic investigation, certain types of detention,…...

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REFERENCES

The Difference Between Federal and State Law. (2010). Retrieved from The Leadership Conference - Civilrights.org:  http://www.civilrights.org/judiciary/courts/difference-federal-local-courts.html 

Cole, G. a. (2004). The American System of Criminal Justice. New York: Wadsworth.

Dempsey and Forst. (2009). An Introduction to Policing. Florence, KY: Delmar Cenage Learning.

Hedgpeth, D. (2008, September 17). Congress Says DHX Oversaw $15 Billion in Failed Contracts. Retrieved from The Washington Post.com:  http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/16/AR2008091603200.html

One of the major things that management can do is increase traffic control. From the Department of Motor Vehicles, which screens people before issuing identification, to officers in routine traffic stops and roadblocks that look for suspected terrorist activity, management can change policies in a manner aimed at increasing detection. (Riebling, p.8). The more routine contact that the police have with members of society; the more likely they are to uncover possible terrorist activity.
Finally, the community at large faces new challenges in the wake of 9-11. Americans have a tremendous amount of civil rights, which generally exceed those that have received constitutional protection. Prior to 9-11, the majority of community members who avoided criminal activity would be able to avoid interactions with the police. However, now that law enforcement has had to broaden its emphasis and take a closer look at the community, the average citizen can anticipate greater…...

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Works Cited

Connors, Timothy and Georgia Pellegrini, Ed. Hard Won Lessons: Policing Terrorism in the United States. New York City: Manhattan Institute, 2006.

Riebling, Mark, Ed. Hard Won Lessons: The New Paradigm- Merging Law Enforcement and Counterterrorism Strategies. New York City: Manhattan Institute, 2006.

viewing the function of policing. It increases understanding of the policing function at different levels hence minimizes conflict and confusion over issues in policing. It is obvious the levels of policing discussed herein are very dependable on each other. Policing like other professions obtains knowledge through experience. It follows that modern police officers look for effective policing strategies through the guidance of the police history lessons (Conser, Paynich & Gingerich, 2013). The challenges confirm that police history is incoherent, and the lessons are hard to learn. Such histories are generated by thousands of police departments in response to local conditions and the pursuit for their visions. While varied policing perspectives are a viable source of lessons, few trends shaping the function of policing at the local, state, and federal levels exist. In this case, interpretation is imperative.
Perspectives of the policing function

Local

In the U.S., policing is civilian, extremely fragmented, and…...

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References

Conser, J.A., Paynich, R., & Gingerich, T. (2013). Law enforcement in the United States. Burlington, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Dantzker, M.L. (2009). Police organization and management: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Langworthy, R.H., & Travis, L.F. (2013). Policing in America: A balance of forces. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

tenet of Christian societies is a need to create healthy and safe local communities. Christians frequently emphasize freedom and justice within the Judeo-Christian perspective. That means creation and promotion of fair criminal justice policies. These criminal justice policies must do away actions based on stereotypes and try to eliminate racial profiling as of apprehending potential criminals. With the support of religious entities and congregations, implementation of community-oriented policing methods through collaboration with intelligence-gathering entities may lead to effective and easier community policing. Things like fusion centers and intelligence-led policing (ILP) may make such a novel aim possible.
Fusion centers act as an information sharing center. Fusion centers were created under the U.S. Department of Justice through two government agencies: Office of Justice Programs and U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Most of them were formed from 2003-2007 (ukus, Warner, & Zhang, 2017). The purpose of fusion centers is to promote at…...

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References

Lambert, D. (2010). FBI -- Intelligence-Led Policing in a Fusion Center. Retrieved from  https://leb.fbi.gov/2010/december/intelligence-led-policing-in-a-fusion-center 

Rukus, J., Warner, M. E., & Zhang, X. (2017). Community Policing: Least Effective Where Need Is Greatest. Crime & Delinquency, 1-24. doi:10.1177/0011128716686339

Schmalleger, F. (2017). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the twenty-first century (14th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Career & Technology.

Spencer, K. B., Charbonneau, A. K., & Glaser, J. (2016). Implicit Bias and Policing. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(1), 50-63. doi:10.1111/spc3.12210