Where, sharp increases or decreases in the temperature could have an effect on the eco system. As any one of the vital pieces of the food system and their way of life; would have ripple effects based on slight changes in temperature. This has the possibility of setting off a mass extinction. (Garrison, 2008)
The obvious effect on land would be that humans depend on the ocean as a source of food. However, changes in the temperature of the ocean could have an effect on global temperatures. As sharp rises or decreases in temperature, could cause changes in the weather patterns. This is because the warmth of the ocean water will determine the overall severity of storms such as: hurricanes and cyclones (with both needing warm water to grow stronger). If the ocean temperature becomes to warm, it could cause these storms to become more serve. This would have a…...
mlaBibliography
Challenger Expedition. (2010). Retrieved February 25, 2010 from National History Museum website: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/index.html
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences. (n.d.) [Power Point slides] Retrieved from Biology Class.net website: www.biologyclass.net/historyocean.pptx
Plate Boundaries. (2005). Retrieved February 25, 2010 from Plate Tectonics website: http://www.platetectonics.com/book/page_5.asp
Plate Tectonics. (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2010 from University of Oregon website: http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/geology/Geo_Lectures/Convergent.html
Oceanography
Comparing Approaches to the Carbon-Based Productivity odel: Assessing the Sensitivity of Remote Sensing-Derived Phytoplankton Productivity to ixed Layer Depth.
The purpose of this review is to compare approaches or variations of approaches that are being used to assess the sensitivity of phytoplankton productivity to mixed layer depth.
The challenge to clarifying controls on primary productivity and the related responses and feedbacks is a key objective of research on global change. In order to accomplish this, however, measurements of NPP and the quantification of its variability in space and time must be refined. Carvalho and Eyre (2012), for example, suggest that conventional approaches to OCR and CRR may be misleading. They propose methods for CRR and photosynthetic measurement that can more precisely measure the concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon in water. This paper will review broad variations of the carbon-based productivity model.
References
Behrenfeld, ., E. Boss, D. Siegel, and D. Shea (2005), Carbon-based ocean…...
mlaMilutinovic, S. Beherenfeld, M.J., Johannessen, A. And Johannessen, T. (2008). Sensitivity of remote sensing-derived phytoplankton productivity to mixed layer depth: Lessons from the carbon-based productivity model. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 23 (GB4005). doi: 10.1029.2008GB3431.
Townsend, D.W., L.M. Cammen, P.M. Holligan, D.E. Campbell, and N.R. Pettigrew (1994), Causes and consequences of variability in the timing of spring phytoplankton blooms, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 41(5 -- 6), 747 -- 765, doi:10.1016/0967-0637(94)90075-2.
Westberry, T., M.J. Behrenfeld, D.A. Siegel, and E. Boss (2008), Carbon- based primary productivity modeling with vertically resolved photoacclimation, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 22, GB2024, doi:10.1029 / 2007GB003078.
Calculate the distance from the mid-ocean ridge to each of the sites
The distance from the middle of the ocean ridge each of the different sites would include: 878 km for site 14; 556 km for site 15; 300 km for site 16; 711 km for site 17; 556 km for site 18; 1189 km for site 19 and 1522 km for site 20.
How many kilometers correspond to 1o?
900,000 km.
Where is the oldest sediment located? Why?
The oldest sediment is located at 21 degrees. The reason why is: because of the paleontological sentiment showing an age greater than 76 million years old.
Is this rate reasonable for sediment thickness vs. age of the first sediment?
The rate for the age of the sediment thickness of 1,000 cm, for every 1,000 cm years is to low. This is because the report said that there was a rate of change of 2 cm per year, which…...
mlaBibliography
Glomar Challenger. (2010). Retrieved March 16, 2010 from Book Regs website:
http://www.bookrags.com/research/glomar-challenger-ued/
Maxwell, a. (1969). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. National Science Foundation, 461 -- 465.
On January 11 at 3:00 AM, high tide reaches its first peak at 31.248 feet at high tide. The corresponding low tide of this same day hits at 10 am at around 3.517 feet. There is a dramatic difference between the two tides occurring twice a day. On that same day, the second round high tide is at a height of 29.588 at 5 pm, a lesser degree than the first tide -- but the low tide is still incredibly different, at 5.09 feet at 11 pm. Then around the 16, the tides move towards the more neutral disparity that was seen earlier in the month. Only to once again increase in disparity later on in the month, this shows a pattern of an increase twice a month.
New London
According to its location on the Eastern seaboard of the Atlantic Ocean, New London experiences a semi-diurnal tide. Further south than…...
mlaReferences
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2010). Types and cause of tidal cycles. Tides and Water Levels. Retrieved March 25, 2010 from http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/tides/tides07_cycles.html
Ocean Link. (2010). Tides: what causes tides to change in the ocean? Ocean News. Retrieved March 25, 2010 from http://oceanlink.island.net/oinfo/tides/tides.html
Pidwirny, Michael. (2008). Ocean tides. Physical Geography: Fundamentals eBook. Retrieved March 25, 2010 from http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8r.html
Oceanography
Diurnal tides are the daily ones, and have a single high tide and low tide, respectively, each day. Semidiurnal tides have two high tides and low tides each lunar day, both of which are always at the same height. Mixed tides are when there's two high tides and two low tides, but the high tides are at different heights and the low tides are at different heights.
Ocean depth and rotational velocity also influence the heights and times of tides at any given location.
Spring tides occur during full moons and new moons, and are the most extreme tides that affect the sway of the ocean's currents the most. These occur when the sun, the moon and the earth are aligned. This produces the highest high tide and the lowest low tide. The neap tide occurs during a crescent moon and during a three-quarters phase of the moon, and takes place due…...
hey are responsible for transporting the heat from tropics to mid-latitudes. On the other hand, speed is said to be lower in the case of eastern currents (e.g. California Current) which transport cold water to the tropics where this is heated and pushed back to the poles by the western streams. Consequently, ocean surface currents help the Sun energy spread from the equator to the poles ((http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/physical/OSC.html).
Swells, breaking surf, tsunami
Swells may be defined as "a long series of ocean waves, generally produced by wind, and lasting after the wind has ceased" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell).hey may be generated thousand of miles away from the beach by tropical storms or wind systems. Such a genesis explains their higher stability in direction and frequency, and the major attractiveness that they exert on surfers. hus, swells are the so called wave trains which display considerable wavelength or period. his is a parameter measuring "the average…...
mlaThe swell speed (in miles per hour) may be calculated as a product between the period (in seconds) and 1.75. Thus, at a 10-second period, the speed is 17.5 mph; at a 12-second period, the speed is 21 mph and so on ( depth (in feet) at which waves feel the ocean floor may be calculated as a product between the square number of seconds between swells and 2.256. For example, a 20-second period swell will have a depth of 1024 feet (Collins, 2007).http://www.rodndtube.com/surf/info/SwellSpeed.shtml ).The
Sometimes waves have the tendency to break when they encounter shallow waters, when two opposite systems meet or when winds become so strong that they are able to remove the wave top. Breaking waves are very dangerous because they can overturn boats and crush ships due to the impressive pressure of up to 50 or 100 kilopascals (4-9 short tons per square yard). Their main treat refers to the speed of the wave crest which is equal to that of the wave itself. Consequently, the base isn't capable of supporting the top and this failure results in wave breaking ( http://seriesdrogue.com/coastguardreport/breaking_waves.htm ).
Tsunamis occur where the sea floor undergoes severe deformations that vertically displace enormous amounts of water. Some of the causes responsible for this phenomenon may be earthquakes, meteorite impacts, eruptions, underwater explosion and so forth. Unlike surf swells, tsunamis display a huge energy that remains fairly constant, despite the great distance they travel. Moreover, they behave as shallow waters with an average speed of 400 to 500 mph and extremely long periods or wavelength. Therefore, tsunamis may not be even noticed by ships sailing in the open ocean. The striking effect is released when reaching
It is difficult to assess to what extent these changes be contributed to global warming, however, due to the relatively short history of observation available to oceanographers. The events put forth in the Pentagon eport are a plausible scenario, although many scientists contest the events as something which is not likely to happen in the near future. There is every possibility though that if climate change continues due to global warming then at some point in the near future ocean currents may become affected in such a way as to stop.
eferences
Bryden, H.L., Longworth, H.. And Cunningham, S.A. (2005) Slowing of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 25°N. Nature, 438, 655-665.
Danovaro, ., Dell'Anno, a., Fabiano, M., Pusceddu, a. And Tselepides, a. (2001) Deep-sea ecosystem response to climate changes: the eastern Mediterranean case study. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 16(9), 505-510.
Hakkinen, S. And hines, P.B. (2004) Decline of subpolar North Atlantic…...
mlaReferences
Bryden, H.L., Longworth, H.R. And Cunningham, S.A. (2005) Slowing of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 25°N. Nature, 438, 655-665.
Danovaro, R., Dell'Anno, a., Fabiano, M., Pusceddu, a. And Tselepides, a. (2001) Deep-sea ecosystem response to climate changes: the eastern Mediterranean case study. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 16(9), 505-510.
Hakkinen, S. And Rhines, P.B. (2004) Decline of subpolar North Atlantic circulation during the 1990s. Science, 304(5670), 555-559.
Loder, J., Yashayaev, I. And Geshelin, Y. (2006) Water masses and currents in Orphan Basin of the North Atlantic. EOS Trans. AGU, 87(52) Suppl., AGU Fall Meeting.
SUVIVAL STATEGIES: BENTHIC VS. PELAGIC ZOOPLANKTON
Oceanography, Marine Organisms
Phytoplankton is the primary food source for most marine organisms, either directly or indirectly. Since phytoplankton converts sunlight into energy, in the form of carbohydrates, their habitat is necessarily confined to the upper pelagic layers. The organisms that feed on the phytoplankton, the zooplankton, are thus forced to either remain in the upper pelagic layers or migrate vertically between the upper and lower layers. An important functional division within zooplankton is the ability to actively travel from location to location (nekton) or simply drift with the ocean currents (plankton) (Miller, 2004, p. 111). Whether an organism can swim or not determines to a significant extent what survival strategies are utilized.
Benthic Zone
Since plankton can't evade predators they rely on more passive defense mechanisms. Gastropods grow hard shells with narrow openings or elaborate sharp spines, and microalgae restrict the production of digestible structural material to…...
mlaReferences
De Meester, Luc, Weider, Lawrence J., and Tollrain, Ralph. (1995). Alternative antipredator defences and genetic polymorphism in a pelagic predator-prey system. Nature, 378, 483-485.
Duffy, J. Emmett and Hay, Mark E. (2004). The ecology and evolution of marine consumer-prey interactions. In M.D. Bertness, S.D. Gaines, and M.E. Hay, (Eds.), Marine Community Ecology (pp. 131-157). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Miller, Charles B. (2004). Biological Oceanography. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science Ltd.
Earth's Ocean Surface Current Patterns And How They Are Produced
The major ocean surface currents vary in speed, size, and depth by location, but generally help to dictate much of the weather patterns coming from the ocean's surface. This is due to the transfer of heat from one location to another on the planet. These current patterns create larger swirls of mixing currents in some locations called gyres. One of the largest gyres in the world, the Pacific Gyre is located in the waters between the cost of California and Hawai'i (McWilliams and estrepo, 1999). In other locations, currents form a connective band of moving water between oceans and seas where creatures are carried. Many of these currents mix downward and influence deeper currents as well (Mills, 2011).
Surface currents move and are created by the sun due to unequal heating of the Earth's surface. More specifically, these patterns are produced primarily…...
mlaReferences
McWilliams, J.C. And J.M. Restrepo. (1999) "The wave-driven ocean circulation."
Journal of Physics and Oceanography. Vol. 29, No. 1. Pp. 2523 -- 2540.
Mills, E.L. (2011). The Fluid Envelope of our Planet: How the Study of Ocean
Currents Became a Science. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Harmful Algal Blooms
Weather events can impact ocean conditions in a variety of different manners. First, extreme events like hurricanes, coastal storms, and floods can physically transport organisms from part of the ocean to another part of the ocean, causing the type of disruption that leads to a harmful algal bloom. Second, extreme weather conditions like El ino and La ina can cause temperature changes that impact growing conditions in the ocean.
Ocean nutrients play a role in algal blooms because the blooms occur when nutrients are sufficiently abundant to feed the algae. utrient levels are impacted by other species in the water, temperature, and pollution.
Pollution may contribute to algal blooms because pollution can provide the nutrients these harmful algae need to survive and kill predator species that normally keep harmful algae levels in a safe range.
Harmful Algal Blooms: an Overview
Harmful algae blooms are microscopic, single-celled plants that live in the…...
mlaNational Ocean Service. (2011, Oct. 14). Preventing HABs before they happen. Retrieved November 4, 2011
from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration website: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/hab/
National Ocean Service. (2011, Oct. 14). Identifying and monitoring HABs. Retrieved November 4, 2011 from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration website:
Kinsler defines acoustics as the science of sound: the generation, transmission and reception of energy in the form of vibrational waves in matter. This covers a large range of disciplines and problems, including noise control, vibration and structural acoustics, and underwater acoustics. Underwater acoustics is using acoustic energy to detect objects in the oceans or sea beds - underwater - just like using radar to detect objects in the air. Acoustics systems guide underwater vessels, such as submarines, through ocean depths in the pursuit (Acoustical Society of America 2002).
We know that sound is transmitted in very long distances, even hundreds of miles, through the wave environment, which makes sound a very important tool for both commercial and military purposes. (ASA) Acoustics signals detect the presence and location of commercially useful fish, map the ocean floor to establish the safest paths for supertankers, explore the earth's geological formations and discover oil…...
mlaBibliography
Acoustical Society of America, The. Acoustics and You, 2002
Federation of American Scientists (FSA). Underwater Acoustics. Military Analysis
3. Ford, John. An Ocean of Sound: an Exploration of Underwater Acoustics, 2001
4. Kinsler, L. E, et al. What is acoustics? Fundamentals of Acoustics. third edition.
The larger particles can influence the absorption rates of solar energy by a factor of three over particulates such as phytoplankton and minerals (Stramski and Woz'niak, 2005). This means that a small concentration of these particles can do a lot for the absorption rates of the water they are suspended in. The smaller particles can also have this effect, but their concentrations need to be proportionately higher to exact this same influence. The smaller particles are more influential as far as backscattering is concerned, and represent a massive shift in the way that scientists think about light diffusion and backscattering within the ocean. Previously, scientists thought that only the larger of these particles combined with other particulates were responsible for most of the solar radiation absorption (Bricaud, a., Morel, a. And Prieur, L., 1981). Now scientists understand that in shallow, mineral-rich waters, even a small presence of these tiniest…...
mlaReferences
Babin, Marcel, and Dariusz Stramski. (2004). "Variations in the mass-specific absorption coefficient of mineral particles suspended in water." Limnology Oceanography. 49(3), pp. 756 -- 767.
Bricaud, a., Morel, a. And Prieur, L. (1981). "Absorption by dissolved organic matter of the sea
(yellow substance) in the UV and visible domains." Limnology, Oceanography 26 (1). pp.43-53.
Dera, J., S. Sagan, and D. Stramski. (1993). "Focusing of sunlight by sea surface waves: new results from the Black Sea." Oceanologia, 34. pp. 13-25.
The fact is that numerous rooted macrophyte structures are not full of naturally strong and healthy particles and sediments and nutrients. It is because of the restriction or absence of these particles, sediments and nutrients that the study of these systems has not been as extensive and thorough as the concentration on the terrestrial structures when understanding the fate, sources and sinks of Co2 levels in the ecosystems and the plants structures (e.g., Drake and Leadley 1991). Researchers assert that "rooted macrophyte systems can be sources of CO2, Chapter 4 and other gases through microbial processing of organic matter in the sediments and direct emission from leaves" (Delaune et al. 1990).
Table 1. Total net primary production (NPP) from world systems (Modified from Valiela, 1984)
Area
NPP
Tot. NPP1
% of Total
% of Total
106 km2
gC m-2 y-1
X106mTC y-1
System
Global
Marine System:
Open Ocean
46
15,355
74.1
24.1
Upwellings
0.4
74
0.4
0.1
Continental shelf
27
2,997
14.5
4.7
Algal eds & reef
0.6
2.7
0.9
Estuaries (exc. marsh)
1.4
3.7
1.2
Tot. Marine
57
20,726
32.5
Continental System:
Terrestr. Env.
39,540
91.7
61.9
Swamp and Marsh
2
1,110
2,220
5.1
3.5
Lakes and Streams
2
0.7
0.5
Tot. Continental
43,112
67.5
Total Global
63,838
Total…...
mlaBibliography
Abel K.M. (1984) Inorganic Carbon Source for Photosynthesis in the Seagrass Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers. Plant Physiology 76, 776-781.
Adam, P. 1990. Saltmarsh ecology. Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge. 461p.
Agren, G., R.E. McMurtrie, W.J. Parton, J. Pastor and H.H. Shugart. 1991. State-of-the-art of models of production-decomposition linkages in conifer and grassland ecosystems. Ecological Applications. 1:118-138.
Anderson, J.M. 1991. The effects of climate change on decomposition processes in grassland and coniferous forests. Ecological Applications 1:326-347.
" Because of the ability to reproduce in large amounts in a small amount of time, phytoplankton are considered as the first link in the food chain of nearly all marine animals. Phytoplankton provide food for a large variety of organisms, including the microscopic animals (such as the zooplankton), bivalve molluscan shellfish (like mussels, oysters, scallops, and clams), and small fishes (such as anchovies and sardines). To continue the food chain, these group of animals then provide their own kind of food to other group animals like crabs, starfish, fish, marine birds, marine mammals, and humans (Karl, et al., 2001).
Figure 1. Sample food chain involving phytoplankton
Source: (www.planktonfyi.com/images/foodchain.jpg,2006).
Mortality Rate of Phytoplankton
It was recorded that from 1980's to the present, phytoplankton have been continuously increasing in frequency and distribution worldwide. The reason for such continuing increase in biomass is yet to be determined, but scientists have provided several assumptions including (Karl, et…...
mlaWorks Cited
Alvarez Cobelas, M., J.L. Velasco, a. Rubio, and C. Rojo. (1994). The time course of phytoplankton biomass and related limnological factors in shallow and deep lakes: a multivariate approach. Hydrobiologia 275/276:139-151.
Anya, M. (1996). Phytoplankton biodiversity.(Marine Biodiversity) Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
Biomass distribution of phytoplankton" (2006). [Available online] www.astro.temple.edu/~sanders1/balance.gif
Carpenter, S.R., J.F. Kitchell, and J.R. Hodgson. (1985). Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. BioScience 35:634-639.
" (SD, 1)
McClintock goes on to connect this to pointedly negative consequences for marine life, arguing that many invertebrates are distinctly vulnerable because their protective shells require many of the nutrients naturally available in their surrounding water to maintain hardness or to develop at all. This is a concern which is also raised in the article by Monroe (2009), where the results of an experiment designed to confirm this effect were as expected. Accordingly, "[Victoria] Fabry, a biological oceanographer and visiting researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego, studies the effects of ocean acidification on the mollusks known as pteropods. In one experiment, only 48 hours of exposure to slightly corrosive seawater caused normally smooth shells to become frayed at the edges on their way to eventual dissolution, severely diminishing their owners' chances of survival." (Monroe, 1)
This demonstrates that the increased acidification of the ocean's waters is…...
mlaWorks Cited:
ANI. (2010). CO2 Negatively Affecting Environment of World's Oceans. Thaindian News.
Monroe, R. (2009). Carbonated Oceans. Explorations: Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
Pechenik, J. (2004). Biology of the Invertebrates. McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.
Pinet, P.R. (2009). Invitation to Oceanography. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Thesis Statement:
The United States Navy has played a crucial role in shaping the course of history, safeguarding national interests, and upholding global security. Its contributions encompass a wide spectrum of operations, from defending territorial waters to conducting humanitarian missions, demonstrating its unwavering commitment to protecting the nation and its allies.
Arguments/Points to Discuss:
1. Historical Significance:
- Highlight the Navy's origins during the American Revolutionary War, emphasizing its instrumental role in securing independence.
- Discuss the Navy's involvement in major conflicts, including the War of 1812, the Spanish-American War, World War I, World War II, and the Korean War, showcasing its adaptability....
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