OCD in Childhood
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a common psychological, anxiety disorder that is characterized by repetitive and intrusive thoughts and stereotypic behaviors frequently associated with dread and compulsion (Walitza). These intrusive thoughts can be scary and the behaviors are often disruptive to the development of social relationships and therefore debilitating especially to children and adolescents. OCD affects approximately 3% of the population and an early age of symptoms onset during childhood and adolescence is reported by more than half of adults with OCD (asmussen, 1992). OCD is a highly comorbid disorder with many children meeting diagnostic criteria for other psychological disorders. Given the early onset of the disorder and the high morbidity associated with it, extensive research has been conducted on childhood OCD. Studies have aimed to determine the genetic composition of the disorder and define the associated symptoms for more appropriate qualification and treatment of the disorder.

Previous studies suggest…...

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References

Ivarsson, T., Granqvist, P., Gillberg, C., Broberg, A.G. (2009). Attachment states of mind in adolescents with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and/or depressive disorders: a controlled study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 845-853.

Janowitz, D., Grabe, H.J., Ruhrmann, S., Ettelt, S., Buhtz, F., et al. (2009). Early Onset of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Associated Comorbidity. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 1012-1017.

Langley, A.K., Lewin, A.B., Bergman, R.L., Lee, J.C., Piacentini, J. (2010). Correlates of comorbid anxiety and externalizing disorders in childhood obsessive compulsive disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 637-645.

Rasmussen, S.A., Eisen, J.L. (1992). The epidemiology and clinical features of obsessive compulsive disorder. Child & Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 743 -- 758.

These studies show the importance of confronting feared stimuli for extinguishing anxiety. However, at the same time, other research has found that the cognitive methodology has had equal results to the ERP in OCD treatment. Hackman and Mcean report that they have as positive results with thought-stopping as those found with ERP. Once again, however, the number of studies has been very small (Abromowitz).
It has only been in the past decade that advances have been made in another possible treatment for the future. In the early 1990s, Baxter began looking at changes in cerebral metabolic patterns that occur with obsessive compulsiveness. He was able to specific changes in the cerebral patterns when ODC activity was occurring. These studies are continuing and becoming more refined. Most recently, Baxter joined others in a study that looked at the affect of hording. Compulsive hoarding and saving are common in individuals with OCD,…...

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Lambert, Mara APA releases guidelines on treating obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Family Physician 78.1(2008): 131.

Saxena, Sanjava, Arthur L. Brody, Karron M. Maidment, Erlyn C. Smith, Narineh Zohrabi, Elyse Katz, Stephanie K. Baker, and Lewis R. Baxter Jr. Cerebral glucose metabolism in obsessive-compulsive hoarding. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 59.12 (2002):1162-1172

Steketee, G. Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. New York: Guilford Press, 1993.

Here is what is known for now: Patients who are found to have OCD generally display symptoms along the lines of having compulsions, obsessions, doubting, hyper-vigilance and the need to control their environment. No one is completely certain what it is that causes OCD, although there are two trains of thought on the matter. Some people believe that OCD is a psychological disorder and others believe that it is a problem with abnormalities in the brain. OCD is treated through CBT, pharmacotherapies and/or SSRIs. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is a far-reaching mental disorder. It can occur in any culture, race, gender or age group. However, the beliefs and activities performed within a culture may have an effect on the obsessions and/or compulsions that are seen within the patients with OCD from that culture. Also, OCD may occur among both males and females but there are some differences among the two gender.…...

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WORKS CITED

BBC Science. "Causes of OCD." Retrieved November 15, 2011 from www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/articles/disorders/causesofocd.shtml .

Dickel, Diane E., et al. (2006, July) "Association testing of the positional and functional candidate gene SLC1A1/EAAC1 in early-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder." Archives of General Psychology. 63:778-785.

Greenberg, William M. (2011, August 25) Medscape Reference. "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Race preference in OCD." Retrieved November 27, 2011 from www.emedicine.medscape.com/article/1934139-overview#aw2aab6b2b5 .

Kalra, Simran K. And Susan E. Swedo. (2009, April 1) "Children with obsessive-compulsive disorder: are they just little adults?" The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 119(4):737-746.

OCD is in many ways a homogeneous disorder. The disorder has a prevalence of around 2% to 3% of the population, and this prevalence is likely underestimated in many different countries / and descriptions of obsessions and compulsions have been remarkably consistent over time and place. Neurobiological studies have consistently found evidence that cortical-striatal-thalamic-cortical (CTSC) circuits play a crucial role in mediating the disorder and treatment research has invariably demonstrated that serotonin reuptake inhibitors selectively reduce the symptoms of OCD (Stein, Andersen, & Overo 2007; O'Connor, Todorov, obillard, Borgeat, & Brault 1999).

The most common treatments for OCD are pharmacological and cognitive behavioral interventions. According to the American Psychiatric Association treatment practice guidelines for OCD, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSIs) are considered first-line treatments for OCD. However, SSIs are often associated with delayed onset of therapeutic effect (8 -- 12 weeks), only partial symptom reduction, and response failure or intolerability in…...

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References

Arias Horcajadas, F., Soto, J., Garcia-Cantalapiedra, M., Rodriguez Calvin, J., Morales, J., & Salgado, M. (2006). [Effectiveness and tolerability of addition of risperidone in obsessive-compulsive disorder with poor response to serotonin reuptake inhibitors]. Actas Espanolas De Psiquiatria, 34(3), 147-152. Retrieved from MEDLINE with Full Text database.

Berlin, H., Hamilton, H., & Hollander, E. (2008). Experimental therapeutics for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: translational approaches and new somatic developments. The Mount Sinai Journal Of Medicine, New York, 75(3), 174-203. Retrieved from MEDLINE with Full Text database.

Burgy, M. (2001). The Narcissistic Function in Obsessive-Compulsive Neurosis. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 55(1), 65. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier database.

Dell'Osso, B., Altamura, A., Mundo, E., Marazziti, D., & Hollander, E. (2007). Diagnosis and treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and related disorders. International Journal Of Clinical Practice, 61(1), 98-104. Retrieved from MEDLINE with Full Text database.

Diagnosis in children is sometimes difficult since they often try to mask symptoms. The following questions are a good indicator that the child needs to be evaluated by a professional:
Do you have worries, thoughts, images, feelings, or ideas that bother you?

Do you have to check things over and over again?

Do you have to wash your hands a lot, more than most kids?

Do you count to a certain number or do things a certain number of times?

Do you collect things that others might throw away (like hair or fingernail clippings)?

Do things have to be "just so"?

Are there things you have to do before you go to bed? (Ben-Joseph, 2009)

At present, there are two solid methods for treating OCD -- behavioral therapy and drugs that help manage serotonin levels in the brain. Depending on the symptoms, a combination of therapies is usually preferred. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), helps children learn to…...

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Works Cited

B., J. (200). The Boy Who Finally Stopped Washing. Cooper Union Press.

Ben-Joseph, E. (2009). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Retrieved from KidsHealth:  http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/behavior/OCD.html# 

Hollander, E. a. (1997). Obsessive Compulsive Disorders. New York: Marvel Decker.

Huebner, D. (2007). What to Do When Your Brain Get's Stuck: A Kid's Guide to Overcoming OCD. Magination Press.

The resulting anxiety then is managed by training children to use strategies that help them work with their anxiety in a more effective and less disruptive way.
Anxiety management techniques may include relaxation training, distraction, or imagery. Often, OCD is personified as something that makes the child perform an action. Thus, children learn to assess situations and ask themselves if they really want to do something, as opposed to the perception that the OCD is making them do something. With cognitive behavioral therapy, the initial goals are specific to one or two behaviors. However, as the patient becomes successful in coping with these situations, generalization usually occurs to other symptoms that have not been targeted. Usually, the patient reports an overall reduction in obsessive thoughts, general anxiety, and the need to perform certain actions.

Treatment of OCD in adults has demonstrated that medications are effective, and the existing studies of children…...

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References

Angst, J., Gamma, a., Endrass, J., Hantouche, E., Goodwin, R., Ajdacic, V., et al. (2005). Obsessive-compulsive syndromes and disorders Significance of comorbidity with bipolar and anxiety syndromes. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 255(1), 65-71.

First, M.B., Frances, a., & Pincus, H.A. (1995). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. In DSM-IV Handbook of Differential Diagnosis (pp. 168-169): American Psychiatric Association.

Foa, E.B., Liebowitz, M.R., Kozak, M.J., Davies, S., Campeas, R., Franklin, M.E., et al. (2005). Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of exposure and ritual prevention, clomipramine, and their combination in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J. Psychiatry, 162(1), 151-161.

Kaplan, a., & Hollander, E. (2003). A review of pharmacologic treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Serv, 54(8), 1111-1118.

Other manifestations of OCD Udall exhibits include bringing his own plastic cutlery to the restaurant and his difficulty in sustaining personal relationships. These are all valid portrayals of the signs and symptoms of OCD.
Part III -- Application to Social Psychological Concepts

Stereotyping is a generalization about a person or group of persons. Stereotypes are developed when one is unable or unwilling to obtain all of the information needed to make fair judgments about people or situations. Society and the media often innocently create and perpetuate stereotypes. These stereotypes may lead to unfair discrimination and persecution when the stereotype is unfavorable. Stereotyping often leads to prejudice and bigotry.

Attribution is a concept in social psychology referring to how individuals explain behaviors of others. The two main types of attributions are internal and external. Internal attributions assign behavior to a person's personality, attitudes, character, or disposition. External attributions assign behavior to the situation…...

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Works Cited

Brooks, J.L. (Director). (1997). As Good as it Gets. [Motion picture]. United States: Tri Star.

Cassin, Stephanie E., Margret a. Richter, K. Anne Zhang, and Neil a. Rector. "Quality of Life in Treatment-Seeking Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Without Major Depressive Disorder." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Vol. 54, Issue 7 (July 2009): 460-467. 20 November 2010.

Storch, Eric a., Jonathon Abramowitz, and Mary Keely. "Correlates and Mediators of Functional Disability in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder." Depression & Anxiety. Vol. 26, Issue 9 (September 2009): 806-176. 20 November 2010.

Taylor, Steven, Meredith Coles, Jonathan Abramowitz, Dean McKay, Se Kang Kim, Chery Carmin, Kiara R. Timpano, and David F. Tolin. "How are Dysfunctional Beliefs Related to Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms?" Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy. Vol. 24, Issue 3 (Fall 2010): 165-176. 20 November 2010.

psychological disorders have been identified by specialists in the field. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an example that not only intrigues mental health professionals but also the general public. Psychology Today, with its article 'Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder', and its intention of educating the public, defines this phenomenon shedding light on its symptoms, causes, and treatment.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neurobiological anxiety condition characterized by repetitive thoughts and actions. The former are obsessions while the latter are compulsions. As with most conditions, the severity of obsessive-compulsive disorder can range from mild to debilitating. Of the two symptoms, obsessions are less externally visible. An obsession is a recurrent thought or feeling that creates anxiety. For example, an individual may repeatedly think that his hands are not clean. As anxiety increases, one attempts to reduce it by performing a repetitive action, called a compulsion or ritual. Using the above example, the recurrent thought of uncleanliness…...

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References

Gard, Carolyn. (2004). Life with OCD: When Ordinary Anxieties Turn into Extreme Behavior.

Current Health 2, 30 (6), 181-185.

Psychology Today Magazine. (1991). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. New York: Sussex

Publishers.

dysfunctional behavior that strikes 1 out of 40 or 50 adults and 1 out of 100 children or 2-3% of any population. It can begin at any age, although most commonly in adolescence or early adulthood - from ages 6 to 15 in boys and between 20 and 30 in women -- according to the National Institute for Mental Health. This behavioral affliction is, therefore, more common than schizophrenia or panic disorder and affects people of all ages, gender, race, occupations, religions and socio-economic ranks. Its impact on the mental and emotional states of such numbers in the United States alone has been so strong that it accounts for more than $8 billion worth of social and economic losses - which is 6% of the country's total mental health bill, according to authoritative sources.
As if not depressing enough, these millions afflicted know that something is wrong with how they…...

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We may also adapt certain scripts or adapt transitional objects to cope with anxiety. That is done by specific self-statements we learn in life as described by Michellbaum (Patterson and Watkins, 1996). Throughout life, we learn situations and specific self-statements which help us cope with situations for less anxiety. In addition, we may hold onto inanimate objects, which serve to soothe us (Patterson and Watkins, 1996)/

Final motivation for anxiety reduction is found in the functioning of the basic personality structure. The personality I believe is made of three parts: the ego, the unconscious and the superego, as described by Jung (Hall,1973). The ego must function as the mediator of the other two parts. Its success in doing this lowers anxiety.

Now, I would like to take a moment to further examine these three structures of the personality. The superego is the moral aspect of personality shaped by parents, peers and culture in accordance with Murray (Schultz, 1994). It tells us what is right and wrong. It demands concordance, regardless of the reality of the situation. The unconscious is the part of personality that guides our behavior without conscious awareness. It is made up of two parts, the personal and the collective unconscious, which Jung described in his theory (Hall, 1973). The personal unconscious contains all our life experiences. The collective unconscious contains species and specific aspects, called archetypes.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Phobias
The video provides statistics that state that the lifetime prevalence rate of OCD is three percent with 30 to 50% in children of ages 7 to 11 having the disorder. The treatment includes Prozac and Zoloft, which improves the disorder, if taken regularly for several weeks. Cognitive behavioral therapy is also one of the treatments that can be used for children. Parents have an important role to play on their part in order to not make their children anxious regarding everyday lives, but make them confident enough so the children find no excuse to skip school. The video is very relevant to treating mental disorders as it clearly explains the medication and the time required to take it in order to be better. I would like to learn more about Augmentation and the different strategies that can be used to prevent phobias in children (Nickel, 2010).

ADHD

The…...

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References

Nickel, T. (2010). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Phobias. Youtube.com. Retrieved from:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXH4xPOdpzE&list=PL58291C0D6F73D49D&index=2 

Nickel, T. (2010). ADHD. Youtube.com. Retrieved from:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HbercPYv7w&list=PL58291C0D6F73D49D&index=3 

Nickel, T. (2010). Autism Spectrum Disorders. Youtube.com. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XI9wloxiGUE&list=PL58291C0D6F73D49D&index=9 

Nickel, T. (2010). Eating Disorders. Youtube.com. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1Wxgfpcxzk&index=10&list=PL58291C0D6F73D49D

This diagnosis will help put the patient on the right path to proper treatment. Given that some individuals with OCD also can benefit from treatment with drugs (including a number of anti-depressants), physicians can often be an important part of the team treating an individual with OCD.
An individual is perhaps somewhat more aware that their problem is psychological -- perhaps because she or he has a relative who has been diagnosed, which is entirely likely given that OCD has a genetic component -- might go to a psychologist or psychiatrist for a diagnosis (Abramowitz, 2009, p. 29). Locally, there are good resources for an individual seeking a diagnosis from a mental health professional. One good option is through the Alberta Mental Health Board. The Grey Nuns Community Hospital in Edmonton offers outpatient psychiatric assessment and treatment, including treatment specifically aimed at individuals with OCD (http://www.albertahealthservices.ca/services.asp?pid=saf&rid=4528

The Centennial Centre in Ponoka…...

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References

Abramowitz, J. (2009). Getting over OCD: A 10 -step workbook for taking back your life. New York: Guilford Pres

Alberta Health Services, retrieved 24 January 2010 from  http://www.albertahealthservices.ca/services.asp?pid=saf&rid=4528 

Canadian Mental Health Association, retrieved 24 January 2010 from  http://www.cmha.calgary.ab.ca/mentalhealth/Types_of_Mental_Illness/OCD.aspx 

Centennial Centre, retrieved 24 January 2010 from http://www.mentalhealthexcellence.ca/programs.php

Anxiety and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 1) Describe your first experience with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (Experiences you had with the first person you diagnosed/first time you heard your child had obsessive-compulsive disorder/first time you remember your obsessive-compulsive disorder being a problem).
According to Mash and Wolfe (2015) obsessive-compulsive disorder involves disturbing and unwanted images, thoughts, or urges that will interfere with a child's mind causing a great deal of discomfort. Mark was having issues with dirt, which forced him to constantly keep washing his hands and cleaning his surroundings. This was quite strange for a child who was only 7 years old. When Mark visited a new place, he had trouble settling down as he feared there was too much dirt and germs. This would at time result in him starting to clean some spots.
2) How did you have to alter your everyday routine/routine of your child/suggestions you gave your patient and their family…...

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References

Hirschtritt, M. E., Bloch, M. H., & Mathews, C. A. (2017). Obsessive-compulsive disorder: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA, 317(13), 1358-1367.

Mash, E. J., & Wolfe, D. A. (2015). Abnormal Child Psychology. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Riva, A. D., Berger, A., & Anholt, G. (2016). Actions speak louder than words: Enhanced action tendencies in obsessive-compulsive disorder: An ERP study. European Psychiatry, 33, S90-S91.

Snyder, H. R., Kaiser, R. H., Warren, S. L., & Heller, W. (2015). Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with broad impairments in executive function: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(2), 301-330.

Thus, though Melvin is not a picture of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, it is clear that James L. Brooks, the movie's producer, has intended to describe him as a sufferer of this disorder.
eflection of the Positive, Negative, and Correct Portrayal egarding Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and the Mental Health Profession

In general as Good as it Gets, is an uplifting movie about how even those with mental disorders and those who are down on their luck, like Carol, can find happiness. Although he suffers from Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Melvin is characterized as remotely successful. He is a popular author of several novels, as is exemplified by the fact that, on the way out of his publisher's office, he is met by an adoring fan, even though he treats her with contempt. In addition, Melvin is not only a popular novelist, but the movie suggests that he is also quite well off financially.…...

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References

Brooks, James (Producer, Director). (1997). As Good as it Gets [Motion Picture]. United

States: Tristar.

DSM -- "IV Classification. (2004). Retrieved January 17, 2008, at  http://www.a2zpsychology.com/resources/dsm_iv.htm 

DSM -- "IV: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. (2008). Retrieved January 17, 2008, at  http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/o-cd.htm

Communicating Effectively With a Person Diagnosed With Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Obsessive compulsive disorder affects roughly 2.5% of the population every year (APA, 2005). Patients with OCD often have difficulty engaging in social interaction and communicating with those around them. Fortunately there are a number of effective treatment strategies that can improve communication with patients diagnosed with OCD. This study examines the methods caregivers and family members can adopt to facilitate effective communication with patients diagnosed with OCD.

Each year thousands of individuals are diagnosed with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) a biologically and psychologically-based mental disorder that can disrupt a patient's social and emotional state. OCD often impairs a patient's ability to not only engage in routine social behavior but also impairs a patient's ability to communicate effectively with those in the world around them. Patients with OCD often engage in ritualistic behaviors that isolate them from friends, family members and peers making…...

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References:

American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed). Washington, DC: APA.

Expert Knowledge Systems. (2005). "Expert consensus treatment guidelines for obsessive compulsive disorder: A guide for patients and families." Psychguides. Accessed 22, Oct. 2005:  http://www.psychguides.com/oche.php 

Geffken, G.R., Fefland, K.M., Goodman, W.K. & Storch, E.A. (2003). "An intensive

outpatient approach to the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Case Exemplars." Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 6(4): 14.

Discussion

Though a great deal more is known about neurotransmission today than was known at the beginning of the research associated with the initial biological discoveries of neurotransmitters and the neurotransmission process there is still a great deal to be discovered. Neurotransmission disorganization and impairment is clearly identified as a pervasive aspect of many psychological disorders. This is particularly true of the anxiety disorders and OCD. There is no doubt that increased understanding of the various mechanisms of OCD and normal neurotransmission will add to a greater research understanding of the biological causalities and modalities of OCD.

Though the most simplistic and earliest neurotransmission disturbance theories have been largely discounted the research has created ample evidence of disturbances in neurotransmission function (in more complex terms) as the root cause of several psychological disorders including various forms of anxiety disorders the subgroup which OCD falls into.

…this research has revealed the staggering complexity of…...

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References

Goodman, W.K., Rudorfer, M.V., & Maser, J.D. (Eds.). (2000). Obsessive-compulsive disorder contemporary issues in treatment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hollander, E. Allen, A. Steiner, M. Wheadon, D.E. Oakes, R. Burnham, D.B. (September 2003) Acute and long-term treatment and prevention of relapse of obsessive-compulsive disorder with paroxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 64(9) 1113-1121.

Howland, R.H. (2005). Chapter 6 Biological bases of psychopathology. In Psychopathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding, Maddux, J.E. & Winstead, B.A. (Eds.) (pp. 109-119). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Liebowitz, M.R. Turner, S.M. Piacentini, J. Beidel, D.C. Clarvit, S.R. Davies, S.O. Graae, F. Jaffer, M. Lin, S. Sallee, F.R. Schmidt, A.B. Simpson, H.B. (December 2002) Fluoxetine in Children and Adolescents With OCD: A Placebo-Controlled Trial Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 41(12) 1431-1438.