Disuse atrophy of the muscles is caused by prolonged inactivity, which often occurs after sustaining an injury. Hypertrophy of the muscles is achieved through regular diet and exercise. 1(p127) Two types of training, strength and endurance, greatly increase muscle condition. Strength training increases muscle condition through the use of resistance. While conditioning through resistance will increase the number of myofilaments in muscle fiber and increases muscle size, it will not increase the number of muscle fibers.1(p128) Resistance training has been shown to positively affect heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output, though not to the same extent as has been found through the extended practice and implementation of endurance training. 2 Long-term resistance training has also been found to reduce the resting heart rate, increase stroke volume at rest and exercise, maintain cardiac output at rest, decrease resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure while at rest, improve resting lipid…...

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3. Clarkson PM, Hubal MJ: Exercise-induced muscle damage in humans.

Am J. Phys Med Rehabil 2002;81(Suppl):S52 -- S69.

4. Freeman N. Muscle Injury and Healing. The Kai Echo. Available at Accessed February 9, 2011.http://www.ajjf.org/AJJF/kiaiEchoArticles/injuryAndHealing.php.

Muscular System
Function of action potentials?

The function of action potentials is to rapidly communicate information within a neuron, coupling the neurons "input," either synaptic, sensory or intrinsic stimulation with its output, neurotransmitter secretion.

Cell electrical properties are the result of?

Cells use atoms that have become charged as a result of gaining, or losing, valency shell electrons. Cells are wet circuits that operate in a salty, conductive, medium.

How is the outside surface of the plasma membrane different from the inside surface?

The outer and inner surface of the plasma membrane of quite different. They form two separate water interacting surfaces, and proteins coat the outer surface. Although proteins extend through the membrane, they are only exposed on the outer surface. By means of selective permeability, the outer surface has a higher positive charge than its inner surface

Know the terms depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, hypopolarization.

Depolarization: This occurs when the inside of the plasma membrane becomes less…...

Muscular System
The normal anatomy and physiology of a muscle determines its capability of formulating a contraction. The contraction of a muscle is dependent on the ability of a neuron to become excited through a process that includes a concentrated flow of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and calcium (Ca+) through the neuron and eventually into the muscle cell (Tortora & Derrickson, 2011). A neuron begins its resting membrane potential at -70mv. In order for an action potential to occur, which is the event that will precede the muscle contraction, the membrane must first depolarize and become more positive, reaching -55mv. Once -55mv is reached, the membrane is said to be at the threshold potential, the voltage by which most Na+ channels in the cell membrane would open. After the first Na+ channel opens, the cell becomes even more depolarized and Na+ ions move into the cell (Martini, Nath, & Bartholomew,…...

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References:

Chabner, D. (2011). The language of medicine and companion cd. (9 ed.). Saint Louis: WB Saunders Co.

Martini, F., Nath, J., & Bartholomew, E. (2011)..Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology. (9th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

Tortora, G.J., & Derrickson, B.H. (2011). Principles of anatomy and physiology. (13th ed., Vol. 22). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

Skeletal and Muscular Systems:
The human body is made of several parts and systems that perform various functions to sustain an individual's life. The skeletal and muscular systems are examples of important systems in the body with various functions. The skeletal system can be described as the body framework on which the human body is built (Turley, 2011). This system is made of 206 bones in addition to ligaments and cartilage in order to provide structural support for the body. This system is also known as the skeletomuscular or musculoskeletal system since it works with the muscular system to sustain body posture, generate movement, and protect the major organs of the body. The various bones that form the skeletal system are divided into various categories including axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.

In contrast, the muscular system provides movements to the bony framework of the body and is made of nearly 700 skeletal…...

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References:

Turley, S.M. (2011). Medical language (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education

Inc.

Washington, B. (2010, September 26). How the Skeletal and Muscular Systems Work Together.

Retrieved June 27, 2014, from  http://prezi.com/digwaxjvdymj/how-the-skeletal-and-muscular-systems-work-together/

Muscular SystemFunctions of Muscle TissueThe muscular system comprises skeletal muscle tissue, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves. The skeletal muscles are core to the body's movement since they pull on bones causing movement at the joints. Movements made by different body parts include chewing, running, running, and manipulating objects. Contraction and relaxation of muscle tissues and muscle metabolism generate heat that is critical for maintaining temperature homeostasis (Mukund & Subramaniam, 2019). The muscle system consists of the nervous system that conveys signals to and from the muscles facilitating communication. The circulation of blood in the body relies on the involuntary movement of the blood vessels and the heart muscles to supply blood to all organs in the body. Muscles also generate a constant contractile force that helps individuals maintain an upright or seated posture.Microscopic and Macroscopic Structure of MuscleThe microscopic structure of muscles includes skeletal muscles attached to bones and consists…...

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References

Günther, M., Haeufle, D., & Schmitt, S. (2018). The basic mechanical structure of the skeletal muscle machinery: One model for linking microscopic and macroscopic scales. Journal Of Theoretical Biology, 456, 137-167.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.07.023 

Mukund, K., & Subramaniam, S. (2019). Skeletal muscle: A review of molecular structure and function, in health and disease. Wires Systems Biology And Medicine, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/wsbm.1462

Anatomy and Physiology of the Skeletal and Muscular SystemsIntroductionToday, human health is being threatened on multiple fronts and it is not surprising that there is growing interest in developing a better understanding about the human bodys various systems and the respective roles they play in maintaining good health. Some people may intuitively recognize the importance of the skeletal and muscular systems to human health, but far too few understand the fundamental anatomy and physiology of these systems. In response to this constraint, the purpose of this paper is to provide a discussion concerning the anatomy and physiology of the skeletal and muscular systems in the human body as well as selected associated disorders that are associated with those systems. Following this review, a summary of the findings is provided in the conclusion.The Skeletal System1. AnatomyIt is important to note that although the human skeletal system is widely regarded as a…...

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ReferencesAbdelgawad, A. A. et al. (2013, September). Submuscular Bridge Plating for Complex Pediatric Femur Fractures Is Reliable. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 471(9), 2797-2807.Anatomy of the Joints. (2007). Arthritis, 2–5.Cowen, P. T. & Kahai, P. (2022). Anatomy, bones. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing.Docherty, B. (2007). Skeletal system. Part three--The axial skeleton and Part four--the appendicular skeleton. Nursing Times, 103(7), 26–27.Human skeletal system. (2022). ACLS Training Center. Retrieved from   human-skeletal-system.Riancho, J., Delgado, A. M., Andreu, M. D., Paz, F. L., Arozamena, S., Gil, B. F. J., & López de Munaín, A. (2021). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cancer, autoimmunity and metabolic disorders: An unsolved tantalizing challenge. British Journal of Pharmacology, 178(6), 1269–1278.Robertson, B. (2015). Q: What Do We Mean by Structure and Function in Science? Science & Children, 52(7), 92.Smeets, J. S. J., Horstman, A. M. H., Vles, G. F., Emans, P. J., Goessens, J. P. B., Gijsen, A. P., van Kranenburg, J. M. X., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2019). Protein synthesis rates of muscle, tendon, ligament, cartilage, and bone tissue in vivo in humans. PloS One, 14(11), e0224745.https://www.acls.net/ 

e. hypertrophy). In the elderly, this process is reverse. Hence, the functional reserve capacities of the skeletal muscles decline with age, largely due to diminished levels of physical activity. As a result daily tasks once taken for granted become progressively more difficult, and eventually impossible, to perform. In illustration, a great deal of muscle force is required to simply stand up or to climb stairs. Therefore, skeletal system is relying upon the reserve capacity of the heart to provide the endurance needed to perform such activities. If an elderly person does not engage in some sort of endurance-based activities, he or she will not have the cardiac reserve capacity needed for daily tasks. More importantly, diminished capacity may not counteract illnesses or diseases. Although strength-based activities help the cardiac reserve, it may not benefit the skeletal system. "While resistance exercise promotes fiber hypertrophy in skeletal muscles, the explosive power of…...

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References

Bailey, R. (2011). Muscle tissue. About.com Guide. Retrieved from  http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa022808a.htm 

Carpi, A. (1999). Basic anatomy - tissues & organs. Retrieved from http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/14-anatomy.htm

Lakatta, E.G. (1994). Cardiovascular reserve capacity in healthy older humans. Laboratory of Cardiovascular Science, Gerontology Research Center, National Institute on Aging, 6(4): 213-23.

Courtesy of Musculartory System BlogSpot

The circulatory or cardiovascular system is responsible for moving nutrients, wastes and gases between body cells, transporting blood across the whole body and battling disease (Circulatory System). Its principal elements are the heart, numerous blood vessels, and blood.
The heart forms the circulatory system's core. This 2-sided, 4-chambered pump which distributes blood to various arteries comprises of the right and left ventricles, and right and left atria. The ventricles, situated within the heart's lower half, are responsible for pumping blood to the whole body (away from our heart), whilst the atria, situated within the heart's upper half are in charge of receiving blood from different parts of the human body. The right and left ventricles pump de-oxygenated and oxygenated blood, respectively; de-oxygenated blood is pumped to lungs while oxygenated blood is pumped to the remainder of the human body (smith, 2013). These 4 chambers are connected to one another by means…...

Calcium is needed in blood clotting, stability and permeability of the membrane, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, cellular secretion, enzyme activity, and cell growth. Magnesium is needed for the metabolism of potassium and calcium and for the mobilization of calcium from bones. Phosphorus plays and important role in the development and maturation of the bone. Its chief role in bone resorption, mineralization and collagen synthesis makes it essential in calcium homeostasis (Michael's).
Diseases and disorders of the skeletal system include leukemia, bursitis, osteoporosis, sprains, fractures, spina bifida, scurvy, arthritis, scoliosis, talipes equinovarus or clubfoot, tendonitis, kyphosis and poliomyelitis (Family Shock 2001). Leukemia is also called cancer of the blood where abnormally large numbers of white blood cells multiply at an uncontrolled manner so that they interfere with the body's production of red blood cells. The cause is still unknown. ursitis is a painful condition, which most commonly affects the hips and…...

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Bibliography

Discovery Kids. Skeletal system. Discovery Communications, Inc., 2000. Retrieved May 30, 2007 at  http://yucky.discovery.com/flash/body/pg000124.html 

Family Shock. Diseases and Disorders. The Shock Family, December 21, 2001. Retrieved May 30, 2007 at http://www.shockfamily.net/sksleton/DISEASE.htmL

Michael's. Skeleton Factors. Michael's Naturapathic Programs: Inner Health Group, Inc., 1996 Retrieved on May 30, 2007 at http://www.michaelshealth.com/pdf/skeletalfactors.pdf

ThinkQuest. Skeletal System. Think Quest USA: Oracle Education Foundation, 1999. Retrieved on May 30, 2007 at http://library.thinkquest.org/5777/sked.htm

S. Congress that the prospects of stem cell research were so vast that it could touch all the realm of medicine (Connor 2000). An unlimited source of embryonic stem cells will solve the problem of shortage of transplants. Embryonic stem cells will save lives by curing generative diseases of the brain, hepatitis, diabetes, leukemia, rheumatoid arthritis, muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis and diseases of the heart and kidneys. ut current laws restrict the use of stems cells on embryos less than 14 days old and for correcting fertility, reproduction or congenital disorders. The restriction is grounded in the belief that the embryo is a potential human being from the moment of conception. It thus possesses a soul and a dignity just like any other viable person (Connor). Previous scientific research presented evidence that genetically engineering cells could partly repair a defective immune system (Travis 2002). Two new studies bolstered this…...

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Bibliography

Bauer, D.G. (2005). Review of the endocrine system. MedSurg Nursing: Jannetti Publications, Inc.

Connor, S. (2000). Science: the miracle cure with a catch. The London Independent: Newspaper Publishing PLC

Degen. D (2008). Body organization and homeostasis. 1 page. Bones, Muscles and Skin. Pearson Education, Inc.: Pearson Prentice Hall

Farabee, M.J. (2006). Animal organ systems and homeostasis. 18 web pages. Estrella Mountain Community College. Retrieved on February 1, 2006 at http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookMUSSKEL.html

esearchers believe that incorporating evidence-based prevention methods can decrease the incidence of ACL ruptures, but an understanding of the etiology and mechanisms of sports injury are a necessary to do this (Posthumus, 2009).
The highest prevalence of extrinsic ACL injuries tends to occur in organized sports especially adolescents participating in pivoting type sports such as football, basketball, and team handball (Bahr & Krosshaug, 2005). In addition to any intrinsic factors and adolescent may have, or predisposing factors, environmental factors surrounding organized sports can also play a role in injury. For example, weather conditions (slippery surface), type of surface sport is played on (grass vs. pavement), proper footwear, and protective bracing (Posthumus, 2009).

A growing concern regarding these injuries and the populations that incur them is that these injuries increase the risk of osteoarthritis (Bahr & Krosshaug, 2005). In fact, after ten years, around half of all people that have suffered from…...

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REFERENCES

Ageberg, E., Thombe, R., Neeter, C., Gravare Silbernagel, K., Roos, EM. Patients With Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Treated With Training and Surgical Reconstruction or Training Only: A Two to Five-Year Followup. Arthritis Care & Research. 2008; 59(12):1773-79.

Bahr, R., Krosshaug, T. Understanding injury mechanisms: a key component of preventing injuries in sport. Br J. Sports Med. 2005; 39:324 -- 329.

Grindstaff, TL., Hammill, RR., Tuzson, AE., Hertel, J. Neuromuscular Control Training Programs and Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Rates in Female Athletes: A Numbers-Needed-to-Treat Analysis. Journal of Athletic Training. 2006; 41(4):450 -- 456.

Health Information Publications (2011). What is the anterior cruciate ligament? eHealthMD retrieved from  http://ehealthmd.com

Burned
There are specialized cells called receptors that receive information about the environment and changes in that environment. Each kind of receptor reacts to a different kind of stimulus. For example, the receptors on the retina in the eye detect light. Receptors are all connected to nerve cells, and the nerve cells carry information from the receptor to the brain, where the signal is processed. The brain makes the decision about what to do with the information, such as move a part of the body to cause a reaction based on the information the receptors sent. However, in the case of an emergency situation, this normal interpretation process takes too long even though it is extremely fast, and instead another emergency plan is followed by the nervous system. When burned the body will experience a reflex reaction.

The skin has receptors that detect both pressure and temperature. In the case of…...

Edwards Syndrome, Trisomy 18 8 sources ( 4-5 Print Sources 3-4 online Sources) All questions answered essay ( mandatory): -What ? (Discription genetic disorder) -What genes chromosomes linked disorder? -Describe populations affected Edwards Syndrome (Include gender, age & number affected USA wordwide.
Edwards syndrome which is also known as Trisomy 18 is a genetic disorder that is caused by the presence of a third copy of chromosome 18 instead of the normal two copies. The extra 18th chromosome comes as a result of nondisjunction of the chromosomal material during meiosis. As a result of failure in the segregation of a chromosome to the daughter cells, there can be errors in the meiotic division leading to an extra chromosome. This extra chromosome usually occurs before conception and it is the second most common autosomal trisomy that carries to term after Down syndrome though it is more common in females than males…...

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References

Buyse, M.L. (Ed.). (1990). Birth Defect Encyclopedia Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Canfield, M.A., Honein, M.A., Yuskiv, N., Xing, J., Mai, C.T., Collins, J.S., . . . Kirby, R.S. (2006). National estimates and race/ethnic-specific variation of selected birth defects in the United States, 1999-2001. . 2006 Nov;76(11):747-56. Birth defects research. Part A, Clinical and molecular teratology, 76(11), 747-756.

HealthStar PR. (2012). First Peer-Reviewed Data For New Noninvasive Prenatal Test Published By Aria Diagnostics. Medical News Today. Retrieved from  http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/240123.php 

Merritt, T.A., Catlin, A., Wool, C., Peverini, R., Goldstein, M., & Oshiro, B. (2012). Trisomy 18 and Trisomy 13: Treatment and Management Decisions. NeoReviews, 13(1), e40-e48. doi: 10.1542/neo.13-1-e40

The authors were trying to develop a system of estimating and indexing muscle fatigue rates during static muscle contraction. The results of this study indicated that estimations were reasonably successful with some limitations that were noted. One limitation was that the study neglected muscle recovery since the experiment was performed in a lab under controlled conditions and the muscles were able to fully recover. However, in the real world muscles move in a dynamic environment thus making muscle recovery rates a challenge in producing an accurate estimate of fatigue.
Another study looked at the efficacy of treatments in patients who suffer from Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS). The study conducted research using 111 patients who suffer from CTS. They compared the standard conservative treatment (SCT) with other forms of treatment available that also propose to alleviate symptoms associated CTS. They found that SCT, which includes local steroid injections, was effective as…...

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References:

Yewguan Soo; Sugi, M.; Nishino, M.; Yokoi, H.; Arai, T.; Kato, R.; Nakamura, T.; Ota, J.;, "Quantitative estimation of muscle fatigue using surface electromyography during static muscle contraction," Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2009. EMBC 2009. Annual International Conference of the IEEE, vol., no., pp.2975-2978, 3-6 Sept. 2009

doi: 10.1109/IEMBS.2009.5332521

URL:  http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5332521&isnumber=5332379 

Ay-e N. Bardak, Mehmet Alp, Belgin Erhan, Nurdan Paker, Betul Kaya and Ay-e . Onal,;, "Evaluation of the clinical efficacy of conservative treatment in the management of carpal tunnel syndrome," Advances in Therapy, Publisher Springer Healthcare Communications, ISSN 0741-238X (Print) 1865-8652 (Online), Issue Volume 26, Number 1 / January, 2009

d.).
The primary organ that is accountable for regulating metabolism is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is situated on the brain stem and forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the cerebrum. The main functions of the hypothalamus is to control and integrate activities of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), production and regulation of feelings of rage and aggression, regulation of body temperature and regulation of food intake (Graham, 2005).

BM goes down with age and with the loss of lean body mass. Increased muscle mass and cardiovascular exercise can help to increase BM, even when the body is at rest. Measured in calories, metabolic rates vary with exertion, recent food ingestion, muscle exertion, environmental temperature, emotional state, body temperature, pregnancy, menstruation, level of thyroid hormones stress hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine), fear and illness. The human body requires energy in order to stay alive and basal…...

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References

Basal Metabolic Rate. (2010). Retreived July 22, 2010, from Buzzle Web site:

 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/basal-metabolic-rate.html 

Basal metabolic rate. (2010). Retreived July 22, 2010, from Wellness.com Web site:

 http://www.wellness.com/reference/fitness/basal-metabolic-rate/practice-theory-and-evidence