" (Ibid) the term cosmology is derived from the Greek word 'kosmos' meaning order and refers to the world and the universe. (Ibid, paraphrased) the cosmologic philosopher is stated to be on who "contemplates the nature of this order and is concerned with the relationships between the plants, the stars and the earth. The laws of the universe are important topics to cosmologic philosophers. They consider the laws of thermodynamics, the laws of gravity, etc. They are also concerned with time and space, with power and motion, disintegration, and preservation." (Ibid)
The third component of metaphysics or that of psychology is a word derived from the Greek language which is stated to refer to "the nature of the psyche or soul." (Ibid) There is a great debate among philosophers about how to define the word soul as some believe that soul and spirit can be used interchangeably and others believe the…...

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Bibliography

Brentano, Franz (1874) Psychology From an Empirical Standpoint: The Concept and Purpose of Psychology. International Library of Philosophy. Online available at: http://www.philforum.org/documents/Psychology%20from%20an%20Empirical%20Standpoint%20(Brentano).pdf

DeRobertis, Eugene (1958) Metaphysics and Psychology: A Problem of the Personal. Online available at: physics_and_Psychology.pdfhttp://brookdalecc.academia.edu/documents/0035/1629/Meta

Health, Ian (2003) Philosophy and Psychology: The Pursuit of Truth. A Modern Thinker, Online available at: http://www.modern-thinker.co.uk/1a%20-%20Phil%20and%20Psy.htm

James, William (1890) the Principles of Psychology, Volume I, American Science Series. H. Holt and Company 1890. Online available at:  http://books.google.com/books?id=HRwuAAAAIAAJ&dq=metaphysics+view+of+psychology&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Besides this, one can, as a separate undertaking, show these people later the way of reasoning about these things. In this metaphysics, it will be useful for there to be added here and there the authoritative utterances of great men, who have reasoned in a similar way; especially when these utterances contain something that seems to have some possible relevance to the illustration of a view. (13)
By contrast, Mercer uses Leibniz's hetoric of Attraction to explain the discrepancies between different descriptions of his intellectual evolution and philosophical system, statements that ultimately served to "lead wayward souls to the philosophical truth" (2001, p. 37). Consequently, Mercer regards Leibniz as a "conciliatory eclectic par excellence," who was one of a group of teachers and scholars with whom he worked early in his intellectual career, from 1661-68.

Hassing notes that Jakob Thomasius was Leibnez's primary inspiration; however, Johann Adam Scherzer, Johann Christoph Sturm,…...

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References

Adams, R.M. (1994). Leibniz: Determinist, theist, idealist. New York: Oxford University Press.

Copleston, F. (1960). A History of Philosophy, Vol. IV: From Descartes to Leibniz. New York: Doubleday.

Crisp, R. (1998). How should one live? Essays on the virtues. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

De Jong, W.R. (1995). How Is Metaphysics as a Science Possible? Kant on the Distinction between Philosophical and Mathematical Method. The Review of Metaphysics, 49(2), 235.

Absolute reality thus is impossible in the world of Descartes. The way Kant began argument for his form of metaphysics began with the critique of pure reason. That involves the realm of the unknown -- moving to the unknown from the known, and this can be determined only by small steps. (Heidegger; Churchill, 9)
Thus as per Kant "critique requires knowledge of the sources, and reason must know itself." And thus the pure reason may have to know first of itself. (Heidegger; Churchill, 133) Kant attempted to reach the origin of things by discarding the earlier metaphysics and relying on his own insight, with which he created the foundation of his analysis. As between them Kant leans more to the Greek forms and enhances the thought while Descartes would not have any of that. In the end both have succeeded in the emphasis of the thought that perceptions of these…...

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References

Augustine, Saint. The Immortality of the Soul: The Magnitude of the Soul; on Music; the Advantage of Believing; on Faith in Things Unseen. Catholic University of America Press: Washington, DC. 1977.

Cahn, Steven M. Philosophy for the 21st Century: A Comprehensive Reader. Oxford University Press: New York. 2003.

Cleeveley, Harry. Metaphysics.

Lulu Enterprises. 2006.

Metaphysics presumes some kind of perfection somewhere, but there is no reason to presume this. Further, it presumes free will in the capacity to strive for the ideal. ut Nietzsche writes, "ecoming is robbed of its innocence when any particular condition of things is traced to a will, to intentions and to responsible actions" (p. 31). People exist from fate. There is no ideal happiness or morality. There is nothing outside the whole by which a judgment could be formed or administered. There is no tracing existence to a first cause. In other words, the moral rationale by which metaphysics creates an eternal, immutable world need not be valid.
In sum, this essay has briefly analyzed Plato's theory of forms and Aristotle's prime mover. It has argued that such metaphysical notions are based as much on moral and theological concerns as on logic. Furthermore, they operate acceptably only by subordinating…...

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Bibliography

Aristotle. (1952). Metaphysics. R. Hope, Trans. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Nietzsche, F. (1998). Twilight of the idols or how to philosophize with a hammer. D. Large, Trans. New York: Oxford University Press.

Plato. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato. E. Hamilton & H. Cairns, Eds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

If free will is an illusion, then a "science of behavior" is necessary to "show us how to manipulate the causes of human behavior," (p. 401). A science of human behavior would be based on observations of how people act under certain conditions, or on how their ancestors acted. Changing destructive behaviors would require discovering the cause of those behaviors: either in a person's genetic code or in a person's environment. The intervention would target those factors, rather than encouraging the person to use willpower.
3. Blatchford believes that human conscience is practically nonexistent: it is a product of experience, of lessons learned about right and wrong behaviors. Human beings need to be taught right from wrong, and hence, human beings lack an innate ability to choose right over wrong. Of course, Blatchford presupposes that human beings would choose right over wrong rather than wrong over right if their free…...

We still understand within ourselves what greatness consists of. We still make our tallies relevant to ethical considerations. We can base our society on rules and order. We can prosecute the murderers. But is all we ever do is tally and rule and prosecute, and we don't allow for the possibility of purifying ourselves in the leap into the void of greatness, we miss having the connection with greatness that makes much of life worthwhile.
In this essay, I have argued that Kant's view of ethics is insufficient to account for all realms of human behavior, and most important, it is insufficient for dealing with actions that derive from faith. I believe that by resorting to a kind of universalized law for action, Kant has suppressed the very individuality that he claims to respect as the basis for his formulation of the Categorical Imperative. He, in effect, resorts to a…...

However, that should not suggest that its pursuit is wholly worthless. There is some value in striving to attain this ideal, even if it can never be realized.
Despite the appeal of the categorical imperative, follows its dictates proves to be seemingly impossible, and even in some instances, undesirable. When adhering to the principles of Kantian morality, it is clear that moral reasoning is reduced to a strict moral calculus, whereby there is only one correct answer to the question, "What am I to do?" This process, moreover, does not allow for any deviations from this strict normative standard, and morally ambiguous areas become non-existent. However, in some situations, certain actions that are in violation of the categorical imperative might be morally necessary. For example, during the Holocaust, people often had to lie to the Nazi SS when harboring Jews in their home. It seems obvious that lying violates at…...

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References

Kant, Immanuel. Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals; with, on a Supposed Right to Lie Because of Philanthropic Concerns. Trans. James W. Ellington. 3rd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co., 1993.

Given that archetypes appear consistent across dreamers, the impact that culture has on the meaning of archetypes and dreams, and the fact that mourners consistently have the four types of grief dreams, it seems logical that culture would impact the appearance and interpretation of archetypes in dreams. For example, given that, culturally, the mother plays a more central role in the African-American family than the father, it would seem that archetypal appearances of the Mother and the Father would have a different meaning for African-American dreamers than for non-African-American dreamers. One of the unique aspects of the United States is that, while people may have similar day-to-day experiences, they are influenced by a wide variety of cultural backgrounds, which suggests that the dream experience of Americans may be non-homogeneous. It is the intent of this paper to examine the role that archetypes play in the grief dreams of members of…...

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Bibliography

Bloom, Harold Ed. 1987

SIGMUND FREUD'S the INTERPRETATION of DREAMS. Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania: Chelsea House Publishers.

Bosnack, Robert 1996

Aristotle & Metaphysics
Aristotle calls the science he is seeking 'first philosophy or theology'. The objective of this study is to answer the question of what does first philosophy or theology consist and what is its object. In addition, this study will ask in what ways that it differs from other sciences and in what sense is it first? In the final analysis this study will answer if Aristotle's 'first philosophy is an ontology or a study of beings or a theology or a study of first or highest beings?

Metaphysics

Madison (2008) writes that metaphysics was a word that Aristotle did not actually use but that the word "does employ a cluster of phrases and words to designate the content of its fourteen books: wisdom, first philosophy, theology, the science of being qua being, the science of the highest causes and principles, and the science of truth." (p.5) The Central ook is…...

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Bibliography

Madison, RD. (2008) First Philosophy. Aristotle's Concept of Metaphysics. ProQuest. 2008. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com/books?id=-HcrX8RoR98C&dq=Aristotle+metaphysics:+first+philosophy+or+theology&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Marie-Dominique Phillipe (1983) First Philosophy, Theology, and Wisdom According to Aristotle. Community of Saint John 2007 originally published in Paradigmes de theologie philosophique 1983.

Wians, William Robert (1996) Aristotle's Philosophical Development. Rowman & Littlefield. Retrieved from:  http://books.google.com/books?id=wE6zGzX5nfsC&dq=Aristotle+metaphysics:+first+philosophy+or+theology&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Foundation of Metaphysics By Kant’s metaphysics of morals is meant the idea that there is a moral duty determined by the motive with which one engages in any behavior. The motive to do one’s duty is what determines its morality. Aristotle’s understanding of teleological ethics is a bit different in that motive is not central, rather the act in and of itself is determinant of its moral quality in so far it is aligned with a good end. Thus, if the friend who dives into the icy waters to save another ends up causing the other’s death because of failing to take certain precautions or considerations (as in he neglects to get a life buoy or is not actually a good swimmer) then the morality of the action is questionable.
Both Aristotle and Kant’s approaches can be combined to create a more comprehensive approach to morality. Kant refers to duty and whether…...

Put another way he contends that the reasoned man must expect the unexpected, while relying on his own memories and senses to determine eventual effects. Rules must apply only when they have been proven repeatedly and are therefore a sound representation of what might happen.
Cause and effect to Hume are those things, which explain the causal relationship of events, and things. Causal relationships are determined by our individual set of beliefs associated with the individual's previous experiences. Hume explains that it is only this historical understanding of the past that guides our ideas of cause and effect. It therefore does not seem strange that we cannot know for certain that the sun will rise tomorrow, though it has been proven to do so repeatedly for as long as man has been recording the passage of days. It is only something we rely on as a truth because of our…...

In Plato's mind, the body is an anchor which holds the soul from enlightenment. That which we know (as we will discuss later) we knew before we had the body and it is only recollection of this knowledge that allows us to know anything while we are in the body.
We will now discuss the application of this idea of Forms and the separation of the same from sensible particulars by discussing Plato's idea of "Two Worlds," or being and partaking. eing does not mean the same thing as partaking is not explained by and does not explain its essence. In fact, Plato postulated that is X lacks essence, it can fail to be. An example given is that of beauty. eauty is beautiful, and other things become beautiful by partaking in what is beautiful. The question then comes whether the partaking is then dependent on the being. In what…...

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Bibliography

Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill.

Vlastos, G., Platonic Studies (2nd ed., Princeton, 1981

Allen, R.E., 'Participation and Predication in Plato's Middle Dialogues,' in id. (ed.), Studies in Plato's Metaphysics: 43-60

Drede, D. 'The Final Proof of the Immortality of the Soul,' Phronesis, 23(1978): 24-41

ather than continue the process that began in the first two books, in which the osicrucian Order first announced themselves, gave their history, and then responded to certain criticisms while making their position within Christian theology clearer, the Chymical Wedding can almost be seen as the first instance of literature written within the osicrucian tradition, rather than as part of its manifesto-like founding documents, because it does not seek to explain the history of osicrucianism, but rather explicate how the teachings and underlying beliefs of osicrucianism contribute to and alter one's interpretation of Christian scripture (Williamson 17; Dickson 760). Specifically, one can see a distinct connection between the Chymical Wedding and seventeenth-century attempts to expand Protestantism throughout Europe. The Chymical Wedding can be seen as a the most explicit attempt on the part of osicrucians and osicrucian supporters to wed the new (or newly revealed) society to the larger religious…...

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References

Andreae, Johann. The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz. N/a: Benjamin Rowe, 2000.

Case, Paul F. The True and Invisible Rosicrucian Order: An Interpretation of the Rosicrucian

Allegory and an Explanation of the Ten Rosicrucian Grades. York Beach, Me: S. Weiser,

1985. Print.

Since a hypothetical imperative represents one of many possibilities that are only means to an end, they cannot be objectively necessary, and therefore do not have the same command over human behavior as a categorical imperative. As Kant notes, commands are laws that we must obey, even when they contradict our inclinations (27).
(b)

If we treat others as a means to an end, then we use them in service of another goal. However, if we treat others as an end in themselves, then we respect them without regard to any other goals or ends. To treat someone as a means to an end is to make them less important than some end result, whereas to treat someone as an end in themselves makes them the final and most important consideration. Slavery may be the most offensive example of using others as a means to an end, but there are many…...

Philosophy
Nietzsche often identified life itself with "will to power," that is, with an instinct for growth and durability. This concept provides yet another way of interpreting the ascetic ideal, since it is Nietzsche's contention "that all the supreme values of mankind lack this will -- that values which are symptomatic of decline, nihilistic values, are lording it under the holiest names" (Kaufmann 1959). Thus, traditional philosophy, religion, and morality have been so many masks a deficient will to power wears. The sustaining values of estern civilization have been sublimated products of decadence in that the ascetic ideal endorses existence as pain and suffering. Some commentators have attempted to extend Nietzsche's concept of the will to power from human life to the organic and inorganic realms, ascribing a metaphysics of will to power to him (Kaufmann 1959).

The insidious process by which we ascribe attributes to our fictitious consciousness has devastating…...

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Works Cited

Call, L. Nietzsche as Critic and Captive of Enlightenment. 1995.

Descartes, R. Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, 4th Ed. Translated by D. Cress. Hackett Publishing Company, 1999.

Berkeley, G. Principles of Human Knowledge / Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.

USA: Penguin Classics, 1988.

Plato's Theory of Forms

Plato's theory of forms is one of the most influential and widely-studied philosophical theories in Western history. It is a complex and multifaceted theory, but at its core, it is the idea that there is a realm of perfect, eternal, and unchanging Forms that exist independently of the physical world. These Forms are the true essence of things, and the physical world is merely a shadow or copy of the Forms.

Essay Topics:

Plato's theory of Forms: An overview and analysis.
The relationship between the Forms and the physical world.
The role of the Forms in Plato's epistemology....

1. The Essence of Thomas Aquinas's Natural Law Theory: An Exploration of Its Foundations and Implications

Discuss the metaphysical and ethical principles that underpin Aquinas's natural law theory.
Analyze the concept of the eternal law and its relationship to the natural law.
Examine the role of human reason in discerning the precepts of natural law and their binding force.

2. The Harmony of Faith and Reason in Aquinas's Summa Theologica: A Critical Examination

Trace the development of Aquinas's understanding of the relationship between faith and reason.
Explore the arguments Aquinas presents for the compatibility of faith and reason.
Evaluate the strengths....

The dynamic intersection between philosophical ethics and Christian theology is a complex and rich area of study that involves examining the moral principles and values that guide human behavior and decision-making, in both secular and religious contexts. This paper aims to explore this intersection, tracing the historical development of ethical thought in Western philosophy and Christian theology, and examining the ways in which these two disciplines have influenced each other over time.

One of the central themes in this exploration is the concept of moral realism, which asserts that moral values and principles are objective and independent of human beliefs or....