Meningitis
Select one bacterial, one fungal, and one viral pathogen capable of producing meningitis in humans.

Bacterial: Neisseria meningitidis

Fungal: Cryptococcus neoformans

Viral: Epstein-Barr virus

Describe the general characteristics and structure of each pathogen.

Neisseria meningitidis: parasitic, aerobic, Gram-negative, non-endospore forming, nonmotile, coccal bacterium (Devoe 1982,-page 162).

Cryptococcus neoformans: grows as a yeast, unicellular, replicates by budding, makes hyphae during mating, eventually creates basidospores (Heitman 2011).

Epstein-Barr virus: mature particle has diameter of 120 nm to 180 nm; has protein capsid, embedded with glycoproteins (Odumade 2011).

Describe in detail the pathogenic process for each pathogen. (How does the microbe produce meningitis?)

Neisseria meningitidis: Human infection begins with inhalation, attaching itself to the epithelial cells. Bacteria then passes the mucosal barrier and enters the bloodstream (Todar 2007).

Cryptococcus neoformans: Spores are inhaled by human beings. Infection can then spread throughout the body, most particularly the central nervous system (McClelland 2007,-page 131).

Epstein-Barr virus: The virus infects the salivary gland cells when brought into…...

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Works Cited

CDC. (2013). Epstein-Barr virus and infectious mononucleosis. Center for Disease Control:

Atlanta, GA.

Dangers. (2013). Menveo.

Devoe, I.W. (1982). The meningococcus and mechanisms of pathogenicity. Microbiological Reviews. 162-90.

Meningitis is an inflammation of the coverings of spinal cord and brain. Meningitis results from an infection to the cerebrospinal fluid in the spaces that surround the brain and spinal cord (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012). Either infections from viruses or from bacteria can cause meningitis; however, the viral form of meningitis is often significantly less severe than its bacterial counterpart and usually resolves without much treatment (CDC, 2012). Meningococcal disease (meningitis) is caused by bacteria Neisseria meningitides which is known also as meningiococcus (CDC, 2012). N. meningitidis is rather common and is actually is known to occur in the upper respiratory tracts of five to thirty percent asymptomatic individuals (Manchanda, Gupta, & Bhalla, 2006).
Meningococcal disease is primarily occurs in younger children. Nearly 50% of cases occur in children younger than four years of age (CDC, 2012). Adults who are at increased risk of developing meningococcal disease…...

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References

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Meningococcal disease. In, Meningococcal disease home. Retrieved March 10, 2012 from  http://www.cdc.gov/meningococcal/about/index.html .

Manchanda, V., Gupta. S., & Bhalla, P. (2006). Meningococcal disease: History, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, antimicrobial susceptibility and prevention. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, 24 (1), 7-19.

Swartz, M.N. (2004). Bacterial meningitis: A view of the past 90 years. The New

England Journal of Medicine, 351(18), 1826-1830.

Meningitis Letter
Dear:

We are excited to have you as a student at Neisserian College and seek ways to make your educational experience here as rewarding as possible. We recognize that as a college student you are now a young adult and want to give you some important medical information regarding life at college.

While schools do everything they can to protect their students' health, occasionally students will acquire an infectious disease. In most cases these illnesses are easily managed, but one disease that surfaces in college, especially in dormitories, can have devastating consequences. Since it can be avoided by a simple vaccination we want to offer that choice to you.

The disease is called meningitis, an infection of the fluid found around the spinal cord. There are several forms of it. Some are viral, and while they will make the person very sick, generally people recover from those forms. However, some are bacterial.…...

Carriers might pass on the disease, but they may not suffer from it for days, months, years or even indefinitely. The cause of susceptibility, other than the obvious -- a weakened immune -- system is not known.
People who come in close contact, such as members of a family, children and youngsters at school of day care, those that are sexually or otherwise intimate will transmit the disease. These individuals are at high risk. If one of a cohort come down with symptoms, and it is proven to be meningitis, then others in close contact have to be vaccinated or otherwise medicated. The Center for Disease Control also through their own research identifies at-risk populations for vaccinations.(Humble 2009) the at large populace is not vaccinated. Members of the military as well as workers in medical facilities are at a higher risk and have to be necessarily medicated. Military personnel were…...

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References:

  "Meningitis (Meningococcal Disease)." Washington, D.C., 2009. Center for Disease Control. April 7, 2009. http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/index.htm >CDC.

Introduction Meningitis infects the meninges, the delicate membranes that house the spinal cord and the brain. It is a rare infection that can affect adults and children alike. The disease manifests in several types such as through viral, bacterial and fungal varieties. Bacterial meningitis is the most dangerous and infectious variety. It is a life threatening disease. It infects people in physical contact. Incidentally, viral meningitis is not as severe as most of the patients that develop the disease recover on their own without seeking treatment (Wang et al., 2014). Fungal meningitis is the rarest form. It occurs in people whose immune system has been compromised.
Etiology
Bacterial meningitis is caused by bacteria that enters the body and relocates to the brain and spinal cord or when bacteria invade the meninges. The point of entry can be a skull fracture, ear or sinus infection, of surgery. Bacteria that cause bacterial meningitis include Streptococcus…...

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References

Bedford, H. (2001). Prevention, treatment and outcomes of bacterial meningitis in childhood. Professional nurse (London, England), 17(2), 100-102.

Benaroch, R. (2017). What Is Meningitis? WebMD, LLC. Retrieved from on 26 February 2018

Roos, K.L. & van de Beek, D. (2010). Bacterial meningitis. Handb Clin Neurol;96C:51-63.

Saez-Llorens, X. & McCracken Jr., G.H. (2003). Bacterial meningitis in children. Lancet, 361: 2139 - 2148.

Stephens, D.S. (2007). Conquering the meningococcus. FEMS Microbiol Rev.31: 3-14.

https://www.webmd.com/children/understanding-meningitis-basics#1

It can be quite contagious.
Fungal meningitis generally occurs in patients who are immune compromised. The symptoms are similar to viral and bacterial meningitis. As with many opportunistic fungal infections of immune compromised patients, it can be quite serious, and treatment is difficult or impossible.

Diagnosis and Treatment

The biggest question for physicians treating patients with suspected meningitis is: "is it viral or is it bacterial?" Rapid tests for Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcus) and Haemophilus influenzae Type have made it relatively easy to determine within a short period of time whether these are the causative agents. These tests are on CSF, however, which can be difficult and painful to extract from the patient. Since they are antibody tests, there can be a delay from onset of infection to production of antibodies; therefore, there can be a false negative early in the course of the disease.

Another indication is the presence of white blood…...

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Bibliography

Bashir, HE, Laundy, M and Booy, R. "Diagnosis and treatment of bacterial meningitis." Archives of Disease in Childhood (2003): 615-620.

Mayhall CG, Archer NH, Lamb VA, Spadora AC, Baggett JW, Ward JD, Narayan RK. "Ventriculostomy-related infections. A prospective epidemiologic study." NEJM (1984): 553-559.

Radetsky, M. "Duration of symptoms and outcome in bacterial meningitis: an analysis of causation and the implications of a delay in diagnosis." Pediatr Infect Dis J (1992): 698-701.

Schuchat, a, Robinson, K, Wenger, JD, Harrison, LH, Farley, M, Reingold, AL, Lefkowitz, L and Perkins, BA. "Bacterial Meningitis in the United States in 1995." JAMA (1997): 970-976.

Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (sTEM-1) were found to be a biomarker in cerebrospinal fluid during the presence of bacterial meningitis; however, it is not yet recommended for clinical practice (Brouwer et al., 2010). Blood cultures and skin biopsy have been used to detect causative pathogens in patients when cerebrospinal fluid cultures are negative or unavailable, but these tests are not definitive enough to be used as the standard diagnostic method (Brouwer et al., 2010). Improvements to blood culture and skin biopsy testing could result in a quicker, more cost effective diagnostic technique that is also safer for the patient.
Treatment Modalities

There are a variety of antibiotic regimens and therapies used for children with bacterial meningitis. Selecting the necessary antibiotic for treatment requires the assessment of its activity against the causative pathogen, its ability to penetrate the cerebrospinal fluid, and to determine the minimum antibiotic concentration for…...

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References

Best, J., & Hughes, S. (2008). Evidence behind the WHO guidelines: hospital care for children-what are the useful clinical features of bacterial meningitis found in infants and children? Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 54(2), 83-86.

Biernath, K., Reefhuis, J., Whitney, C., Mann, E., Costa, P., Eichwalk, J., & Boyle, C. (2006). Bacterial meningitis amoung children with cochlear implants beyond 24 months after implantation. Pediatrics, 117(2), 284-289.

Bingen, E., Levy, C., Rocque, F., Boucherat, M., Varon, E., & Alonso, J. (2005). Bacterial meningitis in children: a French prospective study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 41, 1059-1063.

Brouwer, M., Tunkel, A., & Beek, D. (2010). Epidemiology, diagnosis, and antimicrobial treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 23(3), 467-492.

Bacterial Meningitis)
Namani, S. A., Koci, . A., Qehaja-BuAaj, E., Ajazaj-Berisha, L., & Mehmeti, M. (2014). The epidemiology of bacterial meningitis in Kosovo. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 8(07), 823-830.

The article aims to present bacterial meningitis epidemiologic features presented in Kosovo, a developing country. The epidemiological data in question was analyzed with patient observation and chart review at the University Clinical Center of Kosovo for two years. The methodology also applied active surveillance for ten years for those patients treated with the disease at the Infectious Diseases Clinic in Prishtina. Data analysis was by use of age distribution and the definition given to bacterial meningitis as per WHO's criteria. The samples were forwarded to a laboratory for reference regarding processing, isolation and identification of pathogens. InStat 3 is the software used for statistical analysis. Qualitative variables were compared using Chi-square test and Fisher's.

The first study period's findings were…...

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References

Fayyaz, J., Rehman, A., Hamid, A., Khursheed, M., Zia, N. & Feroze, A. (2014). Age-Related Clinical Manifestation of Acute Bacterial Meningitis in Children Presenting Emergency Department of a Tertiary Care Hospital. J Pak Med Assoc., 64(3), 296-9.

Ivana Luksi?, I., Muli?, R., Falconer, R., Orban, M., Sidhu, S. & Rudan, I. (2013). Estimating Global And Regional Morbidity From Acute Bacterial Meningitis In Children: Assessment Of The Evidence. Croat Med J, 54, 510-8.

Mcintyre, P. B., O'Brien, K. L. Greenwood, B. & Van De Beek, D. (2012). Effect of Vaccines on Bacterial Meningitis Worldwide. The Lancet, 380(9854), 1703-11.

Namani, S. A., Koci, R. A., Qehaja-BuAaj, E., Ajazaj-Berisha, L., & Mehmeti, M. (2014). The epidemiology of bacterial meningitis in Kosovo. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 8(07), 823-830.

igns, Causes, Prevention and Management
Meningitis is an inflammation of the protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. The condition is serious because the inflammation is so close to the vital areas of the body. In general, it can be caused by viruses, bacteria, drugs, or even certain microorganisms. There are at least five different types of meningitis that affect humans: bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and non-infectious (cancer, drugs or inflammatory conditions).

The Centers For Disease Control note that meningitis is a serious health problem for most of the United tates, but there are 16 states in which it has high enough numbers and deaths to be considered an epidemic. Tennessee has the highest number of diagnosed fungal cases, for instance.

The most common symptoms of meningitis in adults are severe headaches followed by the inability to flex the neck. The affliction usually starts with a painful headache with suffer high…...

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Sources: CDC, (2012). Five Types of Meningitis. Retrieved from:  

Bacterial meningitis is a rare infection that attacks the meninges that shroud the brain/spinal cord. It is a potentially deadly infection and one that can be contagious as well. It is caused by a bacterial infection, as the name implies, that started somewhere in the body, for example in the sinuses, and made its way to the brain through the bloodstream (Understanding Meningitis -- The Basics, 2015). Thus, in the individual it spreads through the bloodstream, and from person to person, it can spread through close contact, sneezing, or coughing.
There are different bacteria strains that can cause meningitis, such as: pneumococcus (the most common cause in both young children and adults in the U.S., and typically begins as pneumonia or ear/sinus infection); meningococcus, which starts as a respiratory infection that spreads through the bloodstream and is very contagious, mostly found in teenagers and can spread quickly like an epidemic in…...

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References

Bacterial Meningitis. (2014). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from  http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/bacterial.html#reference 

Cleveland Clinic. (2015). Diseases & Conditions: Bacterial Meningitis. Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved from  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases_conditions/hic_Bacterial_Meningitis 

Thigpen, M. et al. (2011). Bacterial meningitis in the United States, 1998-2007. New

England Journal of Medicine, 364: 2016-25.

Based on the information provided in the case, my roommate’s major symptoms are headache, stiff neck, sensitivity to light, and high fever. These symptoms are usually associated with meningitis, which implies that my roommate could be suffering from this condition. Meningitis is defined as an infection of the meninges or lining and fluid that cover the external parts of the brain and spinal cord. The classic symptoms of meningitis that affect nearly every individual with the condition are headache, vomiting, fever and chills, confusion, seizures, stiff neck, drowsiness, and photophobia i.e. extreme sensitivity to bright lights (Davis & Stoppler, 2017). The most probable cause of my roommate’s symptoms is viruses given that she could be suffering from viral meningitis, which is the most common and least dangerous form of this condition. In her case, the condition could have been caused by enteroviruses, which are found or live in the intestines. The…...

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References

Berger, T. (2016, February). Lumbar Puncture (Spinal Tap). Retrieved September 9, 2017, from

Davis, C.P. & Stoppler, M.C. (2017, July 25). Meningitis in Adults. Retrieved September 9, 2017, from  http://www.emedicinehealth.com/meningitis_in_adults/page4_em.htm 

Doherty, C.M. & Forbes, R.B. (2014, May). Diagnostic Lumbar Puncture. Ulster Medical Journal, 83(2), 93-102.

http://www.mayfieldclinic.com/PE-LP.HTM

Neisseria Meningitidis (Nm)BackgroundIt would be prudent to note, from the onset, that this particular pathogen happens to be exclusively human. In the words of Seib and Peak (2019) Neisseria meningitidis is a leading worldwide cause of sepsis and meningitis, with the highest increase in infants, young children, and adolescents resulting in significant morbidity and mortality (p. 87). Nm, according to Rouphael and Stephens (2012), was first identified in 1887 by a Viennese pathologist by the name Anton Weichselbaum. Rouphael and Stephens (2012) also make an observation to the effect that over time, Nm has been able to evolve multiple mechanisms. This, according to the authors, makes it possible for the pathogen to effectively colonize a persons respiratory tract via the relevant adaptations. This text concerns itself with not only the description and prevalence of Nm, but also its transmission, infection symptoms, as well as prevention efforts.DiscussionDescription and PrevalenceMeningitis could be…...

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References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC (2019). Meningococcal Disease: Causes and Spread to Others.  https://www.cdc.gov/meningococcal/about/causes-transmission.html 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC (2020). Meningococcal Disease (Neisseria meningitidis).  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/meningococcal-disease 

Rouphael, N.G. & Stephens, D.S. (2012). Neisseria meningitidis: Biology, Microbiology, and Epidemiology. Methods Mol Biol., 799, 11-20.

Seib, K. & Peak, I.R. (2019). Neisseria meningitidis: Methods and Protocols. Springer New York.

Jacob Warren-Scott Westman was the only son of Bryan and Carla Westman and was a lovely child. On October 26, 1998, Jacob woke up in the morning feeling unwell, as his head and stomach hurt and in addition he felt dizzy. His mother gave him some Advil for his headache. She believed that he had a touch of flu as she and Jacob's sister Lacey had just gotten over a bout of flu. She did not go to work and instead put her son to bed and he slept a lot and vomited on one occasion. He woke up in the evening complaining that he was still unwell and he was found to have developed a temperature, as he was hot to touch. His exact temperature could not be measured as the thermometer was misplaced and so she gave him some more Advil and put him in a lukewarm bath…...

Hearing loss is very case specific because one person who has hearing loss or impairment may be able to hear certain sounds or be completely deaf.
Impairment entails something is not working as well as it should but there may still be some basic functioning. Hearing loss can go by many terms such as deaf, deafness, or hard of hearing. All could be one and the same situation but as pointed out, each individual is suffering from their own individual illness or situation and may or may not be comparable to any other hearing loss situation.

Although this report focuses on hearing loss as it is associated to military service, it is important to note that in the United States; approximately three of every thousand newborns are born with some type of hearing impairment thus making it one of the more common birth defects in our nation. This entails that there…...

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References, cont.

Minter, Stephen G. (2002). "Does Your Hearing Conservation Program Measure Up? Once Described as "Sleep Aid Material," the Dry Topic of Hearing Conservation Metrics Draws Increased Interest as OSHA's STS Trigger Undergoes Review." Occupational Hazards, 3/1/2002.

Mosley, Gerry L. (2004). "National Guard and Reserve Unit Health Protections." Congressional Testimony, 3/30/2004.

PR Newswire (2003). "Compound Licensed by American BioHealth Group From U.S. Navy Shown to Protect Against Hearing Loss From Impulse Noise; - New Data Presented at Association for Research in Otolaryngology Meeting." PR Newswire Release, 3/3/2003.

Rabinowitz, Peter M. (2000). Noise-Induced Hearing Loss. American Family Physician, 5/1/2000,.

"Elimination of these and other pathogens from the lower respiratory tract is made possible by an effective innate immune response, which is necessary yet potentially dangerous to the infected host."
E. coli Outbreak:

There have been numerous E.coli outbreaks over the years. Pakalniskiene, Falkenhorst, Lisby, and Madsen (2009) studied one of the larger single source outbreaks. On November 11th, 2006, there was an outbreak in Greater Copenhagen, Denmark. The director of a high school had contacted the regional health authority to report an outbreak of diarrhea and vomiting among guests of a school dinner party. A total of 750 people, nearly all of the teachers and students at the school, had attended the dinner. The evening, the first people became sick. Three days later, when the director made the report, approximately 200 to 300 teachers and students had reported gastroenteritis. It was found that the fresh basil used in the pesto…...

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References

Cegelski, L., Marshall, G., Eldridge, G., Hultgren, S. (Jan 2008). The biology and future prospects of antivirulence therapies. Nature Reviews: Microbiology. (6). Retrieved May 7, 2009, from Proquest.

Hacker, J. & Blum-Oehler, G. (2007). In appreciation of Theodor Escherich. Nature Reviews. Microbiology, 5(12) Retrieved May 7, 2009, from ProQuest.

Justice, S., Hunstad, D., Cegelski, L., & Hultgren, S. (2008). Morphological plasticity as a bacterial survival strategy. Nature Reviews. Microbiology, 6(2). Retrieved May 7, 2009, from ProQuest.

Pakaliniskiene, J., Falkenhorst, G., Lisby, M., Madsen, B., Olsen, K., Nielsen, E., Mygh, A., Boel, J., & Molbak, K. (2009). A foodborne outbreak of enterotoxigenic E. coli and Salmonella Anatum infection after a high-school dinner in Denmark, November 2006. Epidemiology and Infection, 137(3) Retrieved May 7, 2009, from ProQuest.

The most common symptoms of meningitis include:
- Sudden high fever
- Severe headache
- Stiff neck
- Feeling disoriented or confused
- Nausea and vomiting
- Sensitivity to light
- Skin rash
- Seizures
- Muscle pain
- Fatigue or difficulty waking up

It is important to note that symptoms can vary depending on the age of the individual and the cause of the meningitis (viral, bacterial, or fungal). If you suspect that you or someone else may have meningitis, seek medical attention immediately.
In addition to the symptoms mentioned earlier, other common symptoms of meningitis may include a bulging soft spot on a baby's head, irritability, poor feeding, and a....

Essential Immunizations for Infants and Children
Immunization plays a crucial role in protecting infants and children from a wide range of potentially life-threatening diseases. The recommended immunization schedule is based on the best available scientific evidence and is designed to provide optimal protection at different stages of development.
Immunization Schedule
The following is the recommended immunization schedule for infants and children in the United States, as outlined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):
0-6 months:
Hepatitis B (HepB)
Rotavirus (RV)
Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis (DTaP)
Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)
Pneumococcal conjugate (PCV13)
6-18 months:
DTaP (2nd and 3rd doses)
Hib (2nd....

Consequences of Unvaccinated MMR: A Comprehensive Overview

Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) are highly contagious viral diseases that can lead to severe complications. The MMR vaccine is a safe and effective way to protect individuals from these diseases. However, some people choose not to vaccinate their children against MMR, which poses significant risks to both the unvaccinated individuals and the broader community.

Measles

Complications: Measles can cause a range of complications, including pneumonia, encephalitis (brain inflammation), and even death.
Transmission: Measles is highly contagious and can spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes.
Outbreaks: In countries with low....