The produced haploid daughter cells then develop further to form gametes (egg & sperm). In summary, meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions whilst mitosis is followed in one division though both of these processes involve the interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase stages.
hile mitosis is important in cell growth, tissues repair and several types of cells through asexual reproduction, meiosis is vital in developing the eggs and sperms through sexual reproduction. hereas mitosis does not produce genetic variability of daughter cells, the several processes in meiosis result in considerable genetic variability. These several processes in meiosis are the independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over and sperm fertilizing the egg randomly.

The process of crossing over in meiosis an important driving force of evolution and after synapsis (the coming together of chromatids) has taken place. In the crossing over process, segments of DNA from one chromatid pass to another chromatid in…...

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Work Cited:

Starr, C., Taggart, R. 2006. Biology: The Unity And Diversity Of Life, 11th ed. Thomson

Brooks/Cole., CA, pp. 158-165.

In meiosis the chromosomes are reduced in half, with the phases being: Interphase, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II. Finally, mitosis creates all other cells with the exception of sex cells, while meiosis creates egg and sperm cells only (Meiosis vs. Mitosis, 2008)
Phases -- Meiosis: 1) Meiosis 1 -- separates chromosomes in half; DNA is exchanged and chromosomes coil and uncoil and share information; 2) Metaphase 1 -- Chromosomes align along an equatorial plane; 3) Anaphase 1 -- Kinetochore (bipolar spindles) shorten and pull the chromosomes apart; 4) Telophase 1 -- the chromosomes arrive at the pole and each daughter cell has 1/2 the number of chromosomes; 5) Meiosis II -- final process in which chromosomes are pulled apart and form four haploid cells. Mitosis: 1) Interphase -- preparation for cell division by production of proteins; 2) Preprophase…...

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REFERENCES

How Chromosome Abnormalities Happen: Meiosis, Mitosis, Maternal Age, Environment. Lucile Packard Children's Hospital at Stanford. Retrieved from:   HealthInfo/HealthLibrary/genetics/happen.htmlhttp://www.lpch.org/Disease 

Meiosis vs. Mitosis. (2008). Difference.com. Retrieved from:   / difference/Meiosis_vs_Mitosishttp://www.diffen.com 

Groleau, R. (2001). How Cells Divide: Meiosis and Mitosis. PBS -- Life's Greatest Miracle. Reteived from:  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/divide.html 

Maton, a., et.al. (1997). Cells: Building Blocks of Life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis are both processes of cell reproduction.

Mitosis is the process by which eukaryotes reproduce asexually and also how multi-celled eukaryotes reproduce cells for bodily growth. Meiosis is the process by which eukaryotes sexually reproduce. Using humans as the examples, new humans are created by meiosis, but within the human, mitosis reproduces cells. Mitosis results in two identical cells, that is the two cells are clones of each other. Meiosis results in four cells that are not identical, the process of meiosis shuffles the genetic information. By describing the two processes, we will see how this occurs.

Mitosis

In mitosis first the chromosome duplicates, creating two sister chromatids, these sister chromatids are identical. The sister chromatids line up in the center of the cells in what is known as a centromere. A spindle then attaches to each chromatid and the cell divides, with one of the sister chromatids in…...

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Lawrence, Eleanor. Dictionary of Biological Terms. Essex: Longman Group Limited, 1996.

Marsden Brown, M. Introduction: Themes in the study of life. University of Dallas. 30 August 2001.

Starr, C and Taggart, R. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1995.

Phenotype
How variations arise within a phenotype?

Phenotype is the specific characteristics that are displayed by the organism. Phenotypic variation is a prerequisite for evolution due to natural selection, thus without the former, there is no latter. Qualitative traits are traits that show a difference between phenotypes like skin color, sex, and eye color. However, such descriptions are controlled by a small number of genes so environmental influence on these traits is low since it involves the genetics of individuals. Quantitative traits are traits that exhibit a continuous range from one phenotype to another. Therefore, there is no difference between phenotypes and are usually influenced by several gene pairs while the environment has a significant influence on the trait. This type of trait involves the genetics of populations. It is a combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce phenotypes that blend into each other. Phenotypic variance or VP is the variance…...

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References

Bellevue College Science Division (2011) Mutation and Genetic Diseases, [online] Available at:   [Accessed: 20 April 2011].http://scidiv.bellevuecollege.edu/rkr/Biology211/lectures/pdfs/GeneticDisease211.pdf 

Biology 346-Evolution (2011) Chapter 13-Evolution of Phenotypic Traits, [online] Available at: www.cbu.edu/~esalgado/BIOL346/ch13.doc [Accessed: 20 April 2011].

Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders (2008) Intro to Genetics, [online] Available at:   [Accessed: 20 April 2011].http://www.jewishgenetics.org/?q=content/intro-genetics 

Grimmel College (2011) Lab 2 -- Sources of Phenotypic Variation, [online] Available at:   [Accessed: 20 April 2011].http://web.grinnell.edu/individuals/brownj/edu/136_lab2.html 

living things are characterized by the following seven characteristics namely mobility, respiration, excretion, sensitivity or response to external stimulus, growth, feeding, and reproduction. Though there may be variations between animal and plant kingdom (ex, plants take in carbon dioxide and prepare their own food), these characteristics are commonly observed among all living things.
iology is a very broad field that encompasses the study of characteristics of living things. It includes botany, zoology and all other sub-disciplines that range from microbiology to evolution and ecology.

Evolution is the branch of biology that deals with the study of natural development of living organisms and the changes in them over time. Evolution refers to the heritable changes that occur in a population over a period of time. All the diversity that is observed currently in plant and animal kingdom can be ascribed to evolution over a long period of time.

Atoms are the smallest, fundamental…...

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Bibliography

1) Mark Rothery, "Cells," Accessed on Sep 20th 2005, Available from http://www.mrothery.co.uk/cells/cellnotes.htm

Timing and Principle Characteristics of Developing Female and Male Germ Cells From Differentiation in Early Embryo to Point of Fertilization
Principle Characteristics Male and Female Germ Cells

The female and male germ cells are reproductive cells that fuse with one another during fertilization (Encarta, 2005; Burfoot, 1999). Each possesses unique characteristics and molecular structure during the prefertilization phase of development and post fertilization. These characteristics are influenced by the production of various hormones in the male and female body.

Fertilization occurs when the materials from two gametes come together to form an embryo. The female gamete is often referred to as the egg or female germ cell whereas the male gamete is often referred to as sperm or the male germ cells (Encarta, 2005; Burfoot, 1999). Developing female germ cells are generally large and contain nutrient reserves including what is referred to as the egg 'yolk' or sometimes white and typically are immobile…...

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References:

AUA. (2005). "Management of male infertility." American Urology Association,

Available:   topic=129http://www.urologyhealth.org/adult/index.cfm?cat=11& ;

Burfoot, Annette. (1999). Encycolopedia of Reproductive Technologies. Boulder:

Westview Press.

Female copperhead snakes are capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction. In essence, sexual reproduction has got to do with the development of a new organism via “the fusion of two sex cells, the male and female gametes” (Smith and Smith, 2015, p. 198). Asexual reproduction, on the other hand, “is the ability of an organism to produce an offspring without the union of sex cells (i.e. gamates)” (Smith and Smith, 2015, p. 199). It is important to note that in terms of genetic diversity, sexual reproduction is of greater relevance than asexual reproduction. This is more so the case given that in comparison to the parent organisms, the egg and sperm produced have different gene combinations. Meiosis is, according to Smith and Smith (2015), involved sexual reproduction. In basic terms, meiosis involves not only the cell DNA doubling, but also the rearrangement of genes, and the division of the…...

Edwards Syndrome, Trisomy 18 8 sources ( 4-5 Print Sources 3-4 online Sources) All questions answered essay ( mandatory): -What ? (Discription genetic disorder) -What genes chromosomes linked disorder? -Describe populations affected Edwards Syndrome (Include gender, age & number affected USA wordwide.
Edwards syndrome which is also known as Trisomy 18 is a genetic disorder that is caused by the presence of a third copy of chromosome 18 instead of the normal two copies. The extra 18th chromosome comes as a result of nondisjunction of the chromosomal material during meiosis. As a result of failure in the segregation of a chromosome to the daughter cells, there can be errors in the meiotic division leading to an extra chromosome. This extra chromosome usually occurs before conception and it is the second most common autosomal trisomy that carries to term after Down syndrome though it is more common in females than males…...

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References

Buyse, M.L. (Ed.). (1990). Birth Defect Encyclopedia Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Canfield, M.A., Honein, M.A., Yuskiv, N., Xing, J., Mai, C.T., Collins, J.S., . . . Kirby, R.S. (2006). National estimates and race/ethnic-specific variation of selected birth defects in the United States, 1999-2001. . 2006 Nov;76(11):747-56. Birth defects research. Part A, Clinical and molecular teratology, 76(11), 747-756.

HealthStar PR. (2012). First Peer-Reviewed Data For New Noninvasive Prenatal Test Published By Aria Diagnostics. Medical News Today. Retrieved from  http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/240123.php 

Merritt, T.A., Catlin, A., Wool, C., Peverini, R., Goldstein, M., & Oshiro, B. (2012). Trisomy 18 and Trisomy 13: Treatment and Management Decisions. NeoReviews, 13(1), e40-e48. doi: 10.1542/neo.13-1-e40

Cell Division
All living things are complex organisms that are made up of cells. Some are made up of a single cell while others comprise of numerous cells working together. Cells are the basic functional and structural units of living organisms and are known to be the building blocks of life. In humans it is from a group of cells that tissues are made and from tissues that organs are made which enable beings to live.

Cells obtain food and oxygen through their membranes and each membrane has a specific area which can serve contents of only a given volume. Any increase in volume of the cell requires that the area of the membrane increases. Basically, when cells grow the membrane becomes insufficient in aiding the movement of substances in and out and thus to maintain a favourable surface area to volume ratio, cell division must take place. Furthermore, cell division ensures…...

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References

Bolsover, S., E. Shephard, H. White, and J. Hyams. Cell Biology: A Short Course. 3. Wiley-

Blackwell, 2011. 432.

Conger, Krista. "Scientists turn skin cells into neural precursors, bypassing stem-cell stage." Stanford School of Medicine. n. page. Print.

Morgan, David. The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control. New Science Press, 2007.

Darwin's Theory Of Evolution
The construct of irreducible complexity is a pivotal aspect of genetic theory and of Darwinian theory. Irreducible complexity is a nexus of the older science of biology from which Darwin built his theory and modern genetic engineering. Darwin's words for irreducible complexity, most commonly associated with his argument about the construction of the eye, were "Organs of extreme perfection and complication," and Darwin further explicates,

"Reason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a simple and imperfect eye to one complex and perfect can be shown to exist, each grade being useful to its possessor, as is certainly the case; if further, the eye ever varies and the variations be inherited, as is likewise certainly the case and if such variations should be useful to any animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural…...

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Works Cited

Abalaka, M.E. & Abbey, F.K. (2011). Charles Darwin theory of evolution and modern genetic engineering. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Opinion, 1(7):174-177. 12 December 2014. Web. Retreived from  http://innovativejournal.in/index.php/jpro/article/viewFile/685/592 

Bergman, G. Pangenesis as a source of new genetic information. The history of a now disproven theory. Rivista di Biologia, 99(3): 425-43. 2006, September-December. Web. Retreived from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17299698 

Darwin, Charles. "Difficulties on theory." Chapter 6. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. (1st edition). 1859. Retrieved from http://friendsofdarwin.com/docs/origin-1/chapter-06/

Liu, Y. Darwin and Mendel: who was the pioneer of genetics? Rivista di Biologia, 98(2); 305-322. 2005. 12 December 2014. Web. Retreived from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16180199

Hermaphrodite is an organism in which a single individual has both male and female gametes. Many plants and some animals are naturally hermaphroditic and can self-fertilize and reproduce themselves from a single organism. (Omoto & Lurquin, 2004, p. 209) While some species actually reproduce asexually, such as single celled organisms and other creatures, this is not the same as being hermaphrodite. There are benefits to the species in some sense in being able to self-fertilize and reproduce in this way. Sexual reproduction in effects cuts the population's growth rate in half. Only females produce offspring, not males. If half the population is male, then the speed of population growth is half that of an all-female population. An all-female species can quickly out produce a male/female species, allowing an all-female species to survive in high mortality habitats where a male/female species can't succeed. This result is also true in hermaphrodite species,…...

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References

Corazza, E. (2004). Reflecting the Mind: Indexicality and Quasi-Indexicality. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Dreger, A.D. (1998). Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hope, Ian A. (1999) C. elegans: a practical approach. London: Oxford University Press.

Kaplan, J. (2006). Misinformation, Misrepresentation and Misuse of Human Behavioral Genetics Research. Law and Contemporary Problems, 69(1-2), 47-59.

These proteins include homologous members of yeast. The presences of these proteins suggest that E. histolytica is skilled to perform homologous recombination, which is the same as in other organisms. DNA damage was evaluated by TUNEL assay. In yeast and in human cells, histone H2AX becomes rapidly phosphorylated when DSs are introduced into chromatin (Lavi et al.).
Studies show that histone as a protein plays a significant role in the transition between the expression of a fetal gene and that of the adult gene. The adult gene's metabolism becomes oxidative in order to adapt to air and to weight, as it generates methylated transmitters and creatine phosphate. The muscles get used to life on the ground as compared to the fetal life which takes place in an aquatic environment. Regulated proteins allow the muscles to respond in a more adequate manner to this environment.

Now, let us see how histone and…...

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Bibliography

Abraham, R.T. (2001). "Cell cycle checkpoint signaling through the ATM and ATR kinases." Genes Dev 15(17): 2177-96.

Alexiadis, V., T. Waldmann, J. Andersen, M. Mann, R. Knippers and C. CGruss (2000). "The protein encoded by the proto-oncogene DEK changes the topology of chromatin and reduces the efficiency of DNA replication in a chromatin-specific manner." Genes Dev 14(11): 1308-12.

Aten, R. And H. Behrman (1989). Antigonadotropic effects of bovine ovarian gonadotropin-releasing hormone-binding inhibitor from bovine ovaries. Purification and identification of histone H2A. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 11065-11071.

Antigonadotropic effects of bovine ovarian gonadotropin-releasing hormone-binding inhibitor/histone H2A in rat luteal and granulosal cells. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 11072-11075.

Alternation of Generations
Alteration of Generations

"Alternation of Generations" is a term used to explain the life cycle and pattern of reproduction in certain vascular plants, protists and fungi. Usually generations of a species take one complete life cycle; therefore, in order to avoid confusion, this term is usually replaced with the term "Alternation of Phases of a single generation."

In "Alternation of Generations," the process of reproduction is different from other reproductions; it keeps moving back and forth from a sexual from of reproduction in one generation to an asexual form of reproduction in the other generation (Polunin, 1960). Each phase of the life cycle of organisms possessing "Alternation of Generations" contains one or two independent living organism gametophyte and a sporophyte. Sporophyte and gametophyte come from the concepts: spore bearing stage (sporophyte) and gamete bearing stage (gametophyte). Genetically, a gametophyte (which can be a tissue or plant) is a haploid with…...

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References

Fried, G and Hademenos, G. (1999). Schaum's Outline of Problems of Theory and Biology. Second Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies. Retrieved July 11, 2012  http://books.google.com.sa/books?id=_XZtGXJIQA4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Schaum%E2%80%99s+Outline+of+Problems+of+Theory+and+Biology&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IQr9T6b2IOOx0QXE0cihBw&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Schaum%E2%80%99s%20Outline%20of%20Problems%20of%20Theory%20and%20Biology&f=false 

Niklas, K. (1999, May). Microscopic Mating Game. Natural History, 108, 44. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from Questia

database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035650896 

Polunin, N. (1960). Introduction to Plant Geography and Some Related Sciences. London: Longmans. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77755670

Macroevolutionary Transition of Cetaceans Back to the Sea
Today, one of the best known examples of macroevolution is that which can be speculated upon and observed in relation to marine mammals. ales, porpoises and dolphins, members of the Catacean order, share a number of distinctions in the marine ecosystem, not the least of which is their high intelligence. Additionally, that these species are mammals that must ascend to the surface for respiration has underscored long-standing zoological speculation as to their origins. As the question of macroevolution suggests, these origins may well denote that the species in question originated on land.

According to the research by Bajpai et al. (2009), the speculative nature of the macroevolutionary theory was given some of its strongest evidence to date by fossil finds in the Indian and Pakistan region. These have suggested that whales in particular can be shown to have evolved into aquatic creatures from an…...

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Works Cited:

Bajpai, S.; Thewissen, J.G. & Sahni, A. (2009). The origin and early evolution of whales: macroevolution documented on the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Bioscience, 34(5), 673-685.

Barton, N.H.; Briggs, D.E.G.; Eisen, J.A.; Goldstein, D.B. & Patel, N.H. (2007). Evolution. Cold Springs Harbor Press.

Meek, P. (1996). Natural Selection. University of Michigan.

Moran, L. (1993). Random Genetic Drift. The Talk Origins Archive.

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
Cells can be divided into two categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells. This size difference is due to the many contents inside a eukaryotic cell that prokaryotic cells do not have. To begin with, prokaryotic cells are always going to be unicellular, while eukaryotic cells can also be unicellular but are many times multicellular (Murray & Baron, 2007). Prokaryotic cells do not have any membrane-bound organelles inside them, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, or lysosome as eukaryotic cells do. The DNA of eukaryotic cells is linear and is contained within the nucleus, while DNA in prokaryotic cells is circular and is contained within the nuclear body, a non-membrane surrounded structure (Murray & Baron, 2007). The number of ribosomes inside a prokaryotic cell is a lot less than those contained in a eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic ribosomes are about 70s while eukaryotic…...

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References:

Murray, Patrick R., and Ellen Jo. Baron. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: ASM, 2007. Print.

Nester, E., Anderson, D., & Roberts, C.E. (2012).Microbiology: A human perspective. (7th ed). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

One of the reasons that Frederick Douglass was an effective anti-slavery advocate was because he was a powerful speaker and writer who mastered rhetorical tools and was able to use them to convey the realities of slavery to people who had either never experienced or had experienced slavery from the perspective of the slaveholder, rather than the perspective of the slave. 

Douglass uses simile, comparing most slaves’ knowledge of their birthdays to what a horse would know of its birthday.  Given that slaves were often compared to beasts of burden; this may not seem like a rhetorical device....

I. Introduction
- Hook: Start with an attention-grabbing statement or anecdote related to biology.
- Background information: Provide a brief overview of biology as a scientific discipline.
- Thesis statement: State the main argument or focus of your essay.

II. Body Paragraph 1: Branches of Biology
- Explanation of different branches of biology (e.g., zoology, botany, microbiology, genetics).
- Descriptions of key concepts and research areas within each branch.
- Examples of how each branch contributes to our understanding of living organisms.

III. Body Paragraph 2: Importance of Biology
- Discuss the relevance and significance of biology in everyday life.
- Highlight the impact of biological research on human health,....

1. The Structure and Function of Cell Organelles
2. Cell Division: Mitosis vs. Meiosis
3. The Role of Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine
4. The Impact of Genetics on Cellular Function
5. The Importance of Cell Communication and Signaling
6. Cellular Respiration: How Cells Produce Energy
7. The Role of Cell Membranes in Maintaining Homeostasis
8. The Connection Between Cancer and Abnormal Cell Growth
9. Cellular Adaptations to Environmental Stress
10. The Evolution of Cells: From Prokaryotes to Eukaryotes.
11. The Role of Epigenetics in Cellular Differentiation and Development
12. Cell Aging: The Effects of Telomeres and Cellular Senescence
13. The Impact of Environmental Toxins on Cell Health and Function
14. The Relationship....

Cellular Structure and Function

1. The Cell Theory: A Cornerstone of Biology
- Trace the history and contributions of cell theory pioneers like Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow.
- Discuss the key tenets of cell theory and their implications for understanding the structure and function of life.

2. The Diversity of Cell Types: From Prokaryotes to Eukaryotes
- Describe the structural and functional differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- Explore the specialized cell types found in multicellular organisms, including plant and animal cells.

3. Cellular Membranes: Gatekeepers of Life
- Explain the structure and composition of cell membranes.
- Discuss the functions of....