Malaria Prevention Among Children in Africa
The objective of this study is to examine malaria prevention among children in Africa. Malaria is the third biggest killer of children on a global scale and is a disease that is completely preventable and treatable, and according to UNICEF this makes all deaths due to malaria unacceptable. (2013, paraphrased) The primary cause of the death of children under the age of five years of age in the West African Ivory Coast is that of Malaria according to UNICEF (2013).

Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are spread, to people through bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes, which are referred to as malaria vectors known to bite primarily between dusk and dawn. Four parasite species that result in malaria in humans are the following:

(1) Plasmodium falciparum;

(2) Plasmodium vivax;

(3) Plasmodium malariae;

(4) Plasmodium ovale. (WHO, 2013, p.1)

The most common of these are Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. The…...

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References

Africa: Adopting an Integrated Approach to Malaria Control (2009) All Africa Global Media. The Carter Center 24 Apr 2009. Retrieved from:  http://www.cartercenter.org/news/publications/health/malaria_publications/AllAfrica-042409-malaria.html 

Malaria (2012) World Health Organization. Retrieved from:  http://www.who.int/topics/malaria/en/ 

Malaria (2013) World Health Organization. Jan 2013. Retrieved from:  http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/ 

McNeil, DG Jr. (2011) Human Swallows Pill. Mosquito Bites Human. Mosquito Dies. The New York Times. 11 Jul 2011. Retrieved from:  http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/12/health/12mosquito.html?_r=3&ref=science& ;

efore this, malaria took place mainly in much the Western states of the Sub-Sahara Africa (Mark, 2002).
For several decades, malaria has out-played war as a basis of human anguish. Over the preceding many decades it has taken away lives of millions of human beings, as well as, shattered the potency of hundreds of millions other human beings. It carries on to be an arduous nuisance on man's efforts to move ahead his farming and business. These were the view of one of the American senators during the 1960's. Since this account approximately four decades ago, it has continued to be considerably suitable even today. Certainly, it could be factual for approximately the whole continuation of the human race in the warmer divisions of the world (Patricia & Schlagenhauf, 2001).

Malaria has only lately been surpassed by another disease called AIDS. Malaria is the second largest solo grounds of loss of…...

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Bibliography

Amir Attaran & Maharaj Rajendra. (2000). Ethical debate: doctoring malaria, badly: the global campaign to ban DDT. British Medical Journal, J 321:1403-5.

Amir Attaran, & Richard Liroff. (2000). Doctoring Malaria, Badly: The Global Campaign To Ban DDT. British Medical Journal, 321.7273 (2000): 1403-1405.

Arrow Kenneth, Claire Panosian, Hellen Gelband. (2004). Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance. National Academies Press.

Anne Platt McGinn. (2002). Malaria, Mosquitoes, and DDT. World Watch, v15 no3: 10-16.

In the earlier times, malaria was a big issue in the North America, Europe and some areas of northern Asia. The geographic distribution could still be offset by the shift in population mobility and climatic changes. Plasmodium falciparum is the most dominant species in the world while the P. Ovale dominating the sub-Saharan region of Africa, and P. vivax found in the other remaining regions according to Parasites and Health.12. However, the last two have a tendency of overlapping in their geographic distribution and they are at times very difficult to distinguish.
(2). egional (within U.S.)

In the U.S.A. The malaria predominance is along the border points and the entry points into the U.S.A. As earlier noted. These are cases that are detected among the travelers returning from the malaria prone areas like Africa and South Asia as the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly eport10 noted. However, most of the cases are…...

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References

1. Medical Dictionary. Malaria: Definition. 2011. http://medical-

dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/malaria. Accessed April 6, 2011.

2. CDC. Diagnosis and Treatment of Malaria in the Malaria-Endemic World. 2010.

 

Challenges in the response of public health in this area includes the following:
1) a lack of medical records or documentation of predeparture therapy;

2) Limited Medicaid reimbursement for therapy and follow-up care due to the lack of documentation;

3) Difficulty in securing the appropriate treatment since Malarone is not on the FDOH.

A formulary; and 4) Initial difficulty in locating a Kirundi interpreter for the interviews. (Epi Update, 2008)

VI. ARRIERS and MISCONCEPTIONS

arriers to funding and focus on prevention, treatment and eradication efforts are identified to be those as follows:

Malaria no longer 'king of diseases' in the tropics and hardly any threat to the industrialized countries of the North

Malariologists no longer in charge - new breed of 'managers' have taken command

asic research dominates and the little applied research that is funded has little operational links with control programs

More complex international infrastructure; countries need to invest heavily to figure out how to seek funds

Funding…...

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Bibliography

Azarian, Taj; Kay, Robin S.; and Smith, Laura (2008)Malaria Among Recently Arrived Burundian Refugees: A Public Health Response. Epi Update. The Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Epidemiology. January 2008.

Breiger, Bill (2008) IRS in Uganda - a Call for Monitoring Resistance 21 June 2008. Indoor Residual Spraying. Malaria Matters. Online available at  http://www.malariafreefuture.org/blog/ 

Brieger, Bill (2008) Counting Down the Cases Morbidity & Monitoring 24 June 2008. Malaria Matters. Online available at

Malaria -- a New Cause for Concern?
Malaria has long been thought of as the bane of travelers to and residents of the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe alone. According to the Center for Disease control, every 30 seconds in Africa a child dies of this disease. ("Malaria," CDC, 2004) It is easy to forget that the construction of the Panama Canal was made possible only after yellow fever and malaria were controlled in that North American area. But will global warming made this formerly prevalent illness resurgent in the United States? ("Malaria: History," CDC, 2004)

The CDC's discussion of the distribution of the ailment states that where malaria is found depends mainly on climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and rainfall levels. "Malaria is transmitted in tropical and subtropical areas," specifically where mosquitoes are prevalent, and the malaria parasites can complete their growth cycles in mosquitoes, which then affect…...

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Works Cited

"Malaria: Home Page." (24 Apr 2004) CDC Website. Retrieved 21 Apr 2004 at   / 'Malaria: Geographic Distribution." (23 Apr 2004) CDC Website. Retrieved 21 Apr 2004 at  http://www.cdc.gov/malaria 

, published as a Bulletin of the World Health Organization. This article reportedly provides a general overview of the current status of prevention treatment in sub-Saharan Africa and assesses whether intermittent preventive treatment in infants would be an effective form of malaria control. Part of the goal of this project was to provide information to decision makers regarding an effective tool to remediate the epidemic conditions of malaria in the region. In order to locate this article, I used the search terms malaria and Africa and filtered for full text peer reviewed articles published between 2005 and 2011.
Other headings that may be relevant to my research include "The transit phase of migration: circulation of malaria and its multidrug-resistant forms in Africa" by Caroline Lynch and Cally oper, 2011 and "andomized controlled trials of malaria intervention trials in Africa, 1948 to 2007: a descriptive analysis" by Vittoria Lutje, Annette Gerritsen and…...

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References

Carneiro, I., Smith, L., Ross, A., et al. (2010). Intermittent preventative treatment for malaria in infants: A decision-support tool for sub-Saharan Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 88(11), 807-814.

Lutje, V., Gerritsen, A., & Siegfried, N. (2011). Randomized controlled trials of malaria

Intervention trials in Africa, 1948 to 2007: a descriptive analysis. Malaria Journal, 10(1), 61-68.

Lynch, C., & Roper, C. (2011). The transit phase of migration: Circulation of Malaria and its multidrug-resistant forms in Africa.

One agent often used to help treat the symptoms and invasion of malaria currently is "quinine" and is effective when used early in the disease process (Kiple 682).
IV. Proposed Development of Vaccine Against Causative Agent

Development of a vaccine against the causative agent will involve assessment and calculation of risk and current environmental exposure to the causative agent (Eisenberg et al., 2002). At present anti-malarial inoculations and medications are available in limited quantities to humans traveling to regions where malaria is prevalent (Eisenberg, et al., 2002). A proper vaccine will investigate further the exposure "scenario" and "transmission models" and aim to strengthen individual's immune systems, among populations most at risk for exposure to the Pathogen, as at this time it is virtually impossible to eliminate the Pathogen entirely (Eisenberg, et al., 2002; Haas, 1983). esearch previously conducted suggests in those with strong immune system, exposure to low dose microorganisms including…...

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References

Eisenberg, Joseph, Brookhart, Alan, Rice, Glenn, Brown, Mary and Colford Jr., John M.

Disease Transmission Models for Public Health Decision Making: Analysis of Epidemic and Endemic Conditions by Waterborne Pathogens. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110.8: 783 (2002).

Ethiopian Mothers Treat Malaria Effectively at Home. Journal of Environmental Health,

Hass, CN. Estimation of risk due to low doses of microorganisms: a comparison of alternative methodologies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 55: 573-582 (1983).

Malaria: An Epidemiological Overview
Distribution: Environmental risk factors

Because of malaria's mode of transmission (through Anopheles mosquito bites), it is an almost exclusively tropical disease. "Temperature is particularly critical. For example, at temperatures below 20°C (68°F), Plasmodium falciparum (which causes severe malaria) cannot complete its growth cycle in the Anopheles mosquito, and thus cannot be transmitted" ("Where malaria occurs," 2010). But where the parasites can complete their growth cycle, wherever the Anopheles mosquitoes can survive and multiply, so do incidents of the disease. Prevalence and intensity is highest where the mosquito can breed year 'round in regions nearest the equator -- particularly in sub-Saharan Africa ("Where malaria occurs," 2010). In some tropical and subtropical countries, prevalence has been reduced because the disease cannot be transmitted at higher altitudes, during colder seasons, in deserts (mosquitos prefer humid climates), and also because of government mosquito control programs ("Where malaria occurs," 2010).

Distribution: Social factors

The fact…...

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References

Driss, A. (et al. 2011). Genetic polymorphisms linked to susceptibility to malaria. Malaria Journal, 10:271. Retrieved from:  http://www.malariajournal.com/content/10/1/271 

The history of malaria, an ancient disease. (2010). CDC. Retrieved from:

 

Though Malaria has been eradicated in some parts of the world, especially developed countries, it remains a significant public health concern across the globe. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (2017), there were 212 million malaria cases and 429,000 malaria deaths globally in 2015 alone. Though the incidence of malaria morbidity and mortality has reduced over the years, these statistics are undoubtedly troubling. Developing countries bear the greatest burden of malaria (Shretta, Avancena & Hatefi, 2016). More specifically, Africa has a disproportionately high prevalence of malaria, with estimates indicating that approximately 90% of all malaria cases and 92% of all malaria mortalities across the globe occur in the continent (WHO, 2017). Over 70% of malaria cases in Africa occur in only 13 countries, mostly in the sub-Saharan region, with infants, children below 5 years, expectant women, and HIV/AIDS patients being at a greater risk compared to the rest of…...

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References

Groepe, M., Urbach, J., Jooste, H., Hlongwana, K., Baker, L., Misiani, E., & Mayet, N. (2013). Health promotion: from malaria control to elimination. The South African Medical Journal, 103(10), 799-800.

Hansen, S., Kanning, M., Lauer, R., Steinacker, J., & Schlicht, W. (2017). MAP-IT: A practical tool for planning complex behaviour modification interventions. Health Promotion Practice, 18(5), 696-705.

Hemingway, J., Shretta, R., Wells, T., Bell, D., Djimde, A., Achee, N., & Qi, G. (2016). Tools and strategies for malaria control and elimination: what do we need to achieve a grand convergence in malaria? PLoS Biology, 14(3): e1002380.

Kumar, S., & Preetha, G. (2012). Health promotion for global health. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 37(1), 5-12.

Obi, L. (2017, October 7). Malaria kills over 50 in two weeks. Daily Nation. Retrieved from  

Shretta, R., Avancena, A., & Hatefi, A. (2016). The economics of malaria control and elimination: a systematic review. Malaria Journal, 15: 593.

World Health Organisation. (2017). Malaria. Retrieved from  http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/ 

http://www.nation.co.ke/newsplex/malaria-deaths/2718262-4128862-f2v5ab/index.html 

Infectious Disease and Nursing Interventions:
In the past few years, the world has gained more awareness regarding health conditions, especially in light of the numerous changes in the environment that cause changes in the microbial population. While the awareness has increased, there are some infectious diseases that have become common in today's world. Actually, these diseases continue to spread rapidly throughout the world, which necessitates global surveillance for the emerging infections through public health initiatives. The need for increased global surveillance in public health is attributed to the increased health risks caused by changes in microbial population and the probable impact of these infections. Generally, an infectious disease is defined as a communicable disease whose main cause is a biological agent like bacterium, virus, and parasite. Consequently, this kind of disease basically requires a biological agent and a transmission mode.

An example of an infectious or communicable disease that is most commonplace…...

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References:

"Nursing Care of Malaria Patients." (n.d.). Pocket Guidelines for the Care of Malaria Patients.

Retrieved April 6, 2014, from http://www.tm.mahidol.ac.th/eng/tropical-medicine-knowledge/book-pocket-guilines/i-book-nurse02-pocket-guilines-part2.pdf

"Water-related Diseases" (2001). World Health Organization. Retrieved April 6, 2014, from  http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/malaria/en/

Malaria isk Factors
Malaria, as Viewed through the Expanded isk Factor Model

Malaria is caused by infection of red blood cells by the parasites Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale and transmitted from human to human by the vector, Anopheles mosquitoes, according to the information provided by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2012a). The ability of the female Anopheles mosquito to thrive in proximity to humans, in addition to the presence of the malaria parasite, therefore determines the prevalence and incidence of malaria infections (CDC, 2012b). The only exceptions to this rule is when malaria is transmitted from human to human through pregnancy or exposure to biological substances, such as during a blood transfusion, organ transplantation, or drug use requiring the sharing of needles. These latter modes of transmission occur rarely, however, therefore the vector, Anopheles mosquitoes, plays a dominant role in determining the risk…...

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References

CDC. (2012a). Malaria: Biology. Retrieved from  

Epidemiological Study on Influenza
Malaria

The study hypothesized that in a population with high risk of developing complications, there is bound to be a high incidence of severe cases and lethality of type A influenza (Lera et al., 2011, p. 372).

The study population is the children attended to at the University Hospital Vall d'Hebron which is a third-level center in Barcelona. The facility serves a population of 45,000 and attends to patients up to the age of 16 years. The study included all patients seen at the pediatric emergency room between July 1st and December 31st of 2009 who were suffering from clinically suspected influenza type A (H1N1). The patients had to meet the criteria for microbiological study according to the Departament de Salut of the Generalitat de Catalunya protocol. The patients had to have travelled to an epidemic region or come into contact with a confirmed case in the last…...

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References

Lera, E., Worner, N.T., Sancosmed, M., Fabregas, A., Casquero, A., Melendo, S., . . . Cebrian, R. (2011). Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of patients with influenza A (H1N1) 2009 attended to at the emergency room of a children's hospital. [Article]. European Journal of Pediatrics, 170(3), 371-378. doi: 10.1007/s00431-011-1399-4

Malaria Outline
I. Introduction
A. Overview of disease pathology
B. History of the disease in tropical climates and elsewhere
II. What community/ population did you choose?
A. According to the CDC (2016), travelers who have not developed partial immunity, children, and pregnant women are most vulnerable to malaria.
B. Malaria primarily affects Africa south of the Sudan in the modern world, where transmission is a risk year-round and the mosquito (Anopheles gambiae) can breed easily (“Malaria,” 2016).
III. Why did you choose this community?
A. Malaria affects some of the poorest communities in the world.
B. Precautions can be taken to curtail its spread.
IV. What types of disparities do they face?
A. Poverty
B. Lack of education
C. Lack of access to healthcare
V. What issue related to public health/community wellness did you choose?
A. No cure exists for malaria.
B. The local population can benefit from a public health campaign.
VI. How does this issue impact your target population’s overall health?
A. “In 2012, malaria caused…...

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References

Malaria. (2016). CDC. Retrieved from:

 

Malaria prevention. (2017). NHS. Retrieved from:

 http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Malaria/Pages/Prevention.aspx 

Prevent malaria. (2017). WHO. Retrieved from:

 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/world-malaria-day/en/ https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/malaria_worldwide/impact.html 

Poverty and Malaria in Angola
Angola is a country on the southern West coast of Africa. Its capital city is Luanda and it recognizes half a dozen national languages (though its native language is Portuguese). It achieved independence from Portugal in 1975 and consists of over 1 million square kilometers. Its population according to the 2014 census was 24,383,301 people. Angola has rich natural resources, from diamonds to oil and wildlife. Today it has one of the fastest growing economies in the world, and the fastest in Africa (Angola Financial Sector Profile, 2015).

The indicator I selected is "reported malaria cases" and it is defined as the "total number of reported malaria cases during the given year" (Data in Gapminder World, 2016). The trend of reported cases shows a sudden spark from 2002 to 2003 (from 1.86 million reported cases in 2002 to 3.24 million reported cases the following year) with a…...

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References

Angola Financial Sector Profile. (2015). MFW4A. Retrieved from  http://www.mfw4a.org/angola/angola-financial-sector-profile.html 

Data in Gapminder World. (2016). Gapminder.org. Retrieved from  http://www.gapminder.org/data/ 

GNI per capita. (2015). Trading Economics. Retrieved from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/angola/gni-per-capita-ppp-us-dollar-wb-data.html

Polgreen, L. (2003). Angolans come home to negative peace. The New York Times.

According to the CDC, United states was once a malaria-endemic country until 1951 when malaria was eliminated in the country. Currently, approximately 1,500 cases of malaria and five deaths are reported annually in the US mostly by returning travelers (Ramasamy, 2014). Globally, malaria is widespread in over 100 countries mostly the less developed tropical areas of Asia, Latin America, and Asia. It is estimated that malaria kills about 1 million people annually in Africa alone. There are about 300 to 500 million cases of malaria reported annually and approximately 90 percent of these cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa. Although malaria is treatable and preventable, it still causes significant mortality and morbidity with the highest number of cases being reported in resource poor-regions and amongst young children. The contributing factors for malaria are mostly dictated by social and economic reasons. In most instances of malaria infection, the people infected are mainly poor…...

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References

Pimenta, P. F., Orfano, A. S., Bahia, A. C., Duarte, A. P., Ríos-Velásquez, C. M., Melo, F. F., . . . Villegas, L. M. (2015). An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 110(1), 23-47.

Ramasamy, R. (2014). Zoonotic malaria–global overview and research and policy needs. Frontiers in public health, 2.

Zurovac, D., Githinji, S., Memusi, D., Kigen, S., Machini, B., Muturi, A., . . . Nyandigisi, A. (2014). Major improvements in the quality of malaria case-management under the “test and treat” policy in Kenya. PLoS ONE, 9(3), e92782.

 

To write an essay on the impact of contagious diseases, you will want to narrow down the topic.  There are several different types of contagious diseases, and the various pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Disease can spread in various ways.  The current Covid-19 pandemic is airborne and spreads through both air and touch, but other diseases have been blood borne, sexually transmitted, spread in food, or spread through other vectors, such as mosquitoes. There are also different types of outbreaks of diseases including pandemic, endemic, epidemic, and outbreak.  They have....

I. Introduction
A. Brief explanation of infectious diseases
B. Brief explanation of lifestyle diseases

II. Infectious Diseases
A. Definition and characteristics
1. Caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi
2. Transmitted through direct contact, contaminated food or water, or vectors

B. Common examples
1. Influenza
2. Tuberculosis
3. Malaria

C. Prevention and control
1. Vaccinations
2. Good hygiene practices
3. Public health measures

III. Lifestyle Diseases
A. Definition and characteristics
1. Chronic diseases caused by unhealthy lifestyle choices
2. Develop over time due to factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and smoking

B. Common examples
1. Cardiovascular diseases (heart disease, stroke)
2. Type 2 diabetes
3. Obesity

C. Prevention and management
1. Healthy diet and nutrition
2. Regular physical activity
3. Smoking....

## Outlining an Essay on Climate Change, Health, and Well-being

### Introduction (150-200 words)
- Hook: Begin with a compelling fact or anecdote that highlights the urgency of climate change's impact on human health.
- Background: Briefly explain the scientific consensus on climate change and its potential consequences.
- Thesis statement: Clearly state the main argument of the essay: that climate change poses significant threats to human health and well-being.

### Body Paragraph 1: Heat-Related Illnesses (200-250 words)
- Topic sentence: Emphasize the link between rising temperatures and heat-related illnesses.
- Evidence: Cite statistics or research studies that demonstrate the increased occurrence and severity of heat strokes,....

Yes, there are several essay topics that can present opposing viewpoints on healthcare in Africa. Some potential essay topics could include:

1. Universal healthcare vs. privatized healthcare in Africa: Is universal healthcare the best way to ensure access to healthcare for all citizens, or would a privatized healthcare system be more efficient and effective?

2. Traditional medicine vs. Western medicine in Africa: Should African countries prioritize traditional healing methods and practices, or should they focus on integrating Western medical techniques and technologies?

3. Government funding vs. foreign aid for healthcare in Africa: Should African governments allocate more resources to healthcare programs, or should....