occurred after a, then it necessarily means that a caused B, even though there might not be any actual connection between the two events. The false cause fallacy commonly occurs in arguments for the efficacy of prayer, which suppose that because a certain desirable thing happened (or an undesirable thing did not happen) after someone prayed, then it necessarily means that their prayer caused (or prevented) thus event.
Sweeping Generalization

The fallacy of sweeping generalization is simply an application of inductive logic without a sufficiently large sample size, because it occurs when one makes a claim about something based on insufficient evidence. This is related to the biased sample fallacy, which occurs when someone makes a claim based on a biased set of evidence, but the sweeping generalization fallacy can occur with or without intentional bias.

Slippery Slope

The slippery slope fallacy occurs in an argument when someone proposes that something will necessarily…...

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References

Aristotle. (2012). On sophistical refutations. New York: Kessinger Publishing.

Gula, R. (2007). Nonsense: Red herrings, straw men and sacred cows. Mount Jackson: Axios

Press.

Labossiere, M. (1995). Fallacies. Retrieved from  http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/

Fallacies
Logical Fallacies

Slippery slope is a logical fallacy where one event is said to lead to another event, which in turn leads to another event, which in turn has significant consequences. For example, a person might argue that if one person is given a pay rise, everyone else will expect a pay rise, and that everyone will expect continual pay rises, and that the organization will go bankrupt. The fallacy occurs because there is no definite link between the initial event and the ones that are said to follow it. The problem in relation to critical thinking is that there is no validity to the reasons. This is especially problematic because the reasons are based on what might happen, with the possibilities of what might happen almost endless. This means that for every event there will be the possibility of coming up with a series of chain reactions that lead to…...

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References

Daft, R.L. (1997). Do women manage differently? In R.L. Daft, Management (p. 27). Fort Worth, TX: The Dryden Press.

Henricks, M. (2005). Risky business: Before a defective product becomes your downfall, learn how to protect yourself. Entrepreneur, March 2005. Retrieved June 10, 2005. Web site:  http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/0,4621,320033,00.html 

Monahan, J. (2005). Lucky stars: Some entrepreneurs are turning to astrology to chart their business courses. Entrepreneur, March 2005. Retrieved June 10, 2005. Web site:  http://www.entrepreneur.com/Magazines/Copy_of_MA_SegArticle/0,4453,320027,00.html 

Murphy, L.R. (1991). Prevention and management of work stress. In J. Billsberry (Ed.), The effective manager: Perspectives and illustrations (pp. 69-76). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Then he uses an appeal to authority by quoting a chemistry professor at Columbia University, Dr. Harold Urey, who said, "All of us who study the origin of life find that the more we look into it, the more we feel it is too complex to have evolved anywhere." That's a patently absurd, baseless evidence.
umber 13 -- Slippery Slope. Blair Magida Waddick writes to the Chicago Tribune that he is "horrified that the naive men on the Supreme Court have sided with Wal-Mart" (rather than with the class action suit against them by women claiming to have been discriminated against). "They should now be required to wear the same jump suits worn by race car drivers covered in corporate names, so we all know who owns them" (June 21, 2011).

umber 5 -- Appeal to Tradition. A mascara ad (LashBlast Volume Mascara) by Cover Girl asserts "You may never go…...

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Number 5 -- Appeal to Tradition. A mascara ad (LashBlast Volume Mascara) by Cover Girl asserts "You may never go false again" and pictures the dark, long, seemingly authentic lashes worn by model Nicole Fox. However, in fine print, the disclaimer admits "lash inserts" were used, according to Dana Oliver (www.stylelist.com). "Ericka" posts (May 31, 2011), "Why is this the first one being called out when they all do it, and have done it for years?"

Number 10 -- Genetic Fallacy. FOX news talking head John Gibson was attacking Al Gore (June 22, 2011) for his views on climate change. Said Gibson, "He's gone Hollywood on us," alluding to Gore's Oscar for the documentary "Inconvenient Truth." "Maybe he has a new lady friend out in Hollywood now that it's no long Tipper…" (Because he produced a successful documentary in Hollywood it naturally follows that he somehow is in love?).

Number 4 -- Appeal to Popularity. Recently Donald Trump accused President Obama of not being born in the United States. Referring to the "birther" movement (a stunning 20% or so of Americans in a recent poll said they doubted Obama's birthplace), Trump told George Stephanopoulos (ABC) "There is a real question about the birth certificate… there is a real question about his own citizenship." When Stephanopoulos rebutted that Obama's birth certificate has a "certificate of live birth which is recognized by the state department," Trump argued back that Stephanopoulos "has been co-opted by Obama and his minions" (www.okmagazine.com).

The generalization is not warranted because it is based on an appeal to ignorance argument -- that if we do not know for certain that climate change was involved in a weather event we should assume that it was not involved. Since there are mitigating factors, it is impossible to tell for certain if any one given weather event is caused by climate change, and the evidence commonly presented in support of climate change never rests on a single weather event, so there is a straw man here as well.
The fourth fallacy comes from a comment made by a friend, arguing that "The TSA doesn't know what it's doing" and citing as evidence "Pocket knives are okay, but water bottles are not?" This is a false analogy. The pocket knife is the thing; the water bottle is the thing to which it is compared. (Or more precisely, the TSA…...

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Works Cited:

Enos, R. (2013). How the Demographic shift could hurt Democrats too. Washington Post. Retrieved March 9, 2013 from  http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/how-the-demographic-shift-could-hurt-democrats-too/2013/03/08/de82ab38-8128-11e2-a350-49866afab584_story.html 

Knappenberger, P & Michaels, P. (2013). Did global warming prevent a record-breaking DC snowstorm? Cato Institute. Retrieved March 9, 2013 from  http://www.cato.org/blog/did-global-warming-prevent-record-breaking-dc-snowstorm 

Paul. R. (2013). Filibuster. YouTube. Retrieved March 9, 2013 from  http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-pn-transcript-rand-paul-filibuster-20130307,0,876160.story 

Taheri, A. (2013). Iran's Latin buddy. New York Post. Retrieved March 9, 2013 from  http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/opedcolumnists/iran_latin_buddy_xvOY7bF5sLfw7OYHfYk8bP

And now each and every box is fortified with vitamins and nutrients that work together to help support your child's immunity. To experience the timeless flavor, make your Rice Krispies Treats® squares with the original Rice Krispies® brand cereal" Rice Krispies are, the ad implies, good for a child, simply because the cereal has existed for a long period of time. The fact that the cereal is the oldest rice-based cereal is also used for promotional purposes. Why a rice-based cereal is 'good' or better than cereals made with other grains is never addressed. Finally, the "timeless" nature of Rice Krispie Treats (which can be made with the cereal) is also used to appeal to a parent's sense of nostalgia.
Source: "Kellogg's Rice Krispies Cereal: Coco Krispies." Kellogg's website. October 26, 2009.

http://www.ricekrispies.com/products/cocoa-krispies-cereal.aspx

Common belief: illsbury's Toaster Strudels

illsbury claims that its Toaster Strudels are "the one kids want to eat," implying that…...

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Pillsbury claims that its Toaster Strudels are "the one kids want to eat," implying that because most children want to eat the pastry, parents should buy them, even though children want to eat and do many things that are not good for them. Additionally, the advertising also displays a false dilemma, as it shows two plates, one with a Pop Tart, the other with a Toaster Strudel. Obviously, the Strudel is photographed in a much more attractive fashion, to encourage people to see it as "the one kids want to eat," although many children might enjoy both brands, and there is no real need to 'choose,' given that family can buy different types of breakfast pastries during the same trip to the supermarket.

Source: "Pillsbury Toaster Strudel." Pillsbury website. October 26, 2009.

 http://www.pillsbury.com/products/breakfast/frozen/toaster-strudel/toaster-strudel-kids-WT.mc_id=paid_bannerad_3864734_751248&ESRC=14347

Poor people should have their welfare cut off, because this will make them work harder. Right now, there is a disease in society, a moral outrage, and that is sloth and laziness. The Bible says that sloth and laziness are sins, but every day we see this in society. We have welfare queens and drug dealers getting welfare paid out of your tax dollars, and if that doesn't get your blood boiling, it should. We just keep the gravy train running. I can't imagine why anybody would think this is a good idea. I defy anybody to tell me why this makes sense.
The bottom line is that the politicians want to raise the minimum wage, keeping these people from pursuing meaningful work in their lives. This is a Christian nation and God does not approve of this type of laziness; He wants people to work hard and be faithful, things…...

Ehrenreich's Complaint "Sounds" Disingenuous
Barbara Ehrenreich states that women complaining at the turn of the 20th century about being "robbed of their creative work" were behaving "pointlessly reactionary" (66): she uses the word "sounds" in her argument, as in their complaint "sounds pointlessly reactionary." This use of the word "sounds" is problematic for the following reason: the term "sounds" is used by her instead of the linking verb "is" to avoid making an absolute (though her argument stands by it). The claim of this paper is that this verb usage is disingenuous because it allows her to make an invalid assumption without actually being held responsible for it. hy is the assumption in valid? She is making an assumption that no woman could legitimately issue such a complaint -- but she provides no evidence that this assumption is based on fact.

In fact, Ehrenreich is hardly comfortable with her own thesis, which…...

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Works Cited

Ehrenreich, Barbara. "Maid to Order." Harper's Magazine, April 2000: 59-70. Print.

Ethics: Green's Dilemma
Identifying Logical Fallacies

Fallacy 1: Circular Definition (The definition includes the term being defined as a part of the definition, it is assumed because something is a rule it must be obeyed without saying why)

"I believe that all rules should be strictly obeyed," the officer told himself.

Fallacy 2: Conflicting Conditions (The definition is self-contradictory)

"But this is a special circumstance. Don't all rules have exceptions?

Fallacy 3: Argument from emotion. (No logic, just emotion.)

Besides, I really do love Greek food!"

Fallacy 4: Straw man. (Attacking the person, not the argument.)

"e can't have officers accepting free meals, you dumb rookie!

Fallacy 5: Slippery slope. (Assumes unconnected chain of causal events.)

Free meals lead to cash bribes and corruption. Eventually people will be asking you to get them illegal drugs!

Fallacy 6: Post hoc. (The conclusion doesn't follow from the evidence.)

Besides, the year we started banning free meals, the city's car thefts went down by 20%!…...

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Works Cited

Downes, Steven. "Logical Fallacies." 16 Aug 1996.

http://www.datanation.com/fallacies/index.htm

Shef, A.C. "Rawls' contractarianism in A Theory of Justice." 1997.  http://www.shef.ac.uk/~pip97pjc/essweb1.htm 

"Utilitarianism." The Free Dictionary. com. 2004

Fallacy of Emotion Emotional appeals are commonly used in the media, although good journalists avoid them when communicating the facts to the public. Politicians, on the other hand, rely willingly and frequently on emotional appeals to sway their audiences in the same way that marketers do. The politicians’ reactions to the Las Vegas shootings of October 2, 2017 reveals the different ways emotional appeals are used to sway or influence the public, while simultaneously diverting attention from the real issues. President Trump responded to the Vegas mass shooting as an “act of pure evil,” a moralistic judgment that speaks directly to those who believe in the Biblical duality of good versus evil. In fact, Trump went on to say, “We pray for the day when evil is banished. May God provide the grieving families with strength to carry on,” highlighting his appeal to emotion through the socially acceptable medium of religion.…...

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Works Cited

Robbins, James. NFL commits suicide by Trump with politically correct protests. USA Today. Retrieved online:  

https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2017/09/26/fl-stop-self-destructive-grandstanding-and-just-play-football-james-robbins-column/701472001/ 

ecause fallacies like the ones presented above can cause such problems in all forms of research and decision making, it is useful to have some tools to analyze a given statement. Known as "analytical tools," some examples are the "Devils Advocate," a method in which one argues against the stated conclusion to determine its validity (even though one may not agree with the position), "Lateral Thinking," or Edward de ono's term for a type of creative thinking involving "pattern-switching within a patterning system." In basic terms, this means taking a look at a statement from a different perspective. For example, de ono gives the example, "Grandma is knitting and young Susie is disturbing her playing with the wool. The father suggests putting Susie into the playpen. The mother suggests it might be a better idea to put Grandma in the playpen." This definitely gives one a different perspective on the…...

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Bibliography

Dolhenty, Jonathan. 2003. Welcome to the Nonsense Traps [online]. Available at  http://radicalacademy.com/logicalfal4.htm 

LeBon, Tim. Arnaud, David. 2002. Towards Wise Decision-Making III: Critical and Creative thinking [online]. Available at http://www.decision-making.co.uk/Publications/DecisionMakingAndCriticalCreativeThinking.htm

The Free Dictionary.com. 2004. The Bandwagon Fallacy [online]. Available at  http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Bandwagon%20fallacy 

Dolhenty, Jonathan. Welcome to the Nonsense Traps. 2003.

By definition, any argument that contains faulty reasoning is termed a logical fallacy. Most logical fallacies are arguments seem psychologically convincing, but are weak logically. Most importantly, a logical fallacy makes people accept certain arguments and conclusions that would ordinarily not be easily acceptable as valid (Doss et al. 2014). This paper discusses some logical fallacies and how they affect criminal justice.
Argumentum ad hominem

The argumentum ad hominem is the argument directed at a particular person.

The ad hominem is considered a fallacy that neither the speaker's character nor the circumstances reveal any facts concerning the validity or the invalidity of the argument presented by the speaker or whether the speaker's conclusion is true or false. Sometimes, even people whose characters do not conform to accepted social norms are known to offer valid arguments, and the instance of the political interests of the speaker coinciding with the conclusion reveal nothing about how…...

Appeal to Authority In one advertisement for a skincare product, the company claimed “most dermatologists recommend...” the product. This is an appeal to authority: a classic logical fallacy. With an appeal to authority like this one, the speaker bases its claim solely on the authority of an individual or institution. In this case, the company uses dermatologists as their symbol of authority on skincare. While dermatologists are experts in the medical treatment of skin, a product still needs to be tested empirically.
Appeal to Pity
This false appeal is also used widely in advertisements, particularly those that promote charitable organizations. One commercial shows malnourished children, and begs for the viewer’s money, claiming that the money can help these poor children. Appealing to pity is a variant on emotional appeals more broadly, in which the speaker manipulates audience sentiments, which can cloud rational judgment.
Appeal to Fear
Fear-based appeals are used constantly, particularly by politicians. For…...

Assignment 1 Logical fallacies are everywhere, and can be surprisingly persuasive to those who are unaware of their existence. One logical fallacy is red herring, which throws in a random, unrelated idea to throw off the audience. For example, a recent article criticized the anti-gun protesters not because they were violent but because they were “rude to adults.” A more effective means of engaging the protesters would have been to have a reasoned argument based on their actual political points of view. Saying they were “rude” has nothing to do with the central argument, which is related to gun control.
Another logical fallacy is begging the question, which is commonly used also in the gun control debate. For example, gun advocates will claim that gun control is bad because all Americans have the right to own guns because of the Second Amendment. Referring to the Second Amendment is fine, because it is…...

Fallacies
The choices that people make determine the shape of things to come. This observation holds true at the individual, organizational, national, and global level. Therefore, it is obvious that close attention needs to be paid to critical thinking ability or the way decisions are made. This inference can be drawn because critical thinking involves the formation of logical inferences, the development of cohesive and logical reasoning patterns, and careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, or suspend judgment. Thus, learning critical thinking skills can help an individual to recognize propaganda, analyze unstated assumptions in arguments, realize when there is deliberate deception, consider the credibility of information sources, and think a problem or decision through in as objective a manner as possible (Halpern, cited Simon & Kaplan; Stahl & Stahl; Moore & Parker, 1996, p. 5-6). In other words, learning to recognize and avoid unsound reasoning techniques or logical…...

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References

Halpern, D.F. (1996). Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking.

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Pirie, Dr. M. Ignorantiam, Argumentum Ad. Adam Smith Institute. Retrieved Nov. 4, 2004:

http://www.adamsmith.org/logicalfallacies/000632.php

So is the appeal to ignorance. One need look no further than Fox News to find such an appeal -- what else can one say about a news site that has a regular featured financial columnist called "the capitalist pig?" Jonathan Hoenig who proudly calls himself by this title, plays into the readers' likely assumptions that greed is good is lauded for selecting the highest yield profile over one year, regardless of the fact that many readers may really want to be long-term investors -- the one with the most money wins, proclaims the "Cash it in Challenge" of Fox. The fine print of the challenge, however, reads that "is FOX News' policy that contributors disclose positions they hold in stocks they discuss, though positions may change. Readers of "Cashin' in Challenge" must take responsibility for their own investment decisions."
Yet even though one might snidely observe that Fox News…...

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Works Cited

Hoenig, Jonathan (20 May 2005) "Cashing it in Challenge." Fox News Website. Retrieved 21 May 2005 at  http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,122620,00.html 

Hurt, Harry III. (20 May 2005) "Freud and Schwarzenegger: Both Can't Be Wrong." Business News. The New York Times. Retrieved 21 May 2005 at  http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/21/business/21pursuits.html 

Soprano Star in Depression Fight." (11 Mar 2005) BBC News. Retrieved 21 May 2005 at  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4339889.stm 

Why Live with Depression." (2005) Pfizer Company Website. Retrieved 21 May 2005 at http://www.lbracco.com/battlingdepression2005.htm

Writing an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay presents a clear and well-supported position on a debatable topic. It aims to persuade the reader by providing evidence and logical reasoning to bolster the author's stance.

Step 1: Selecting a Topic and Thesis Statement

Choose a controversial or thought-provoking topic.
Formulate a clear and specific thesis statement that articulates your main argument.
Ensure that your thesis is debatable and can be supported with convincing evidence.

Step 2: Research and Gathering Evidence

Consult credible sources such as books, journals, and reputable websites to gather information pertaining to your topic.
Look for evidence that supports both sides....

The Imperative of Argumentation Education for Effective Argumentative Essay Writing

Argumentative essays are a staple of academic writing, demanding the development and defense of a well-reasoned position. However, many students struggle with this challenging task, often due to insufficient understanding and practice in argumentation. To address this, educators must consider the necessity of requiring students to take dedicated courses in argumentation before embarking on argumentative essay writing assignments.

Understanding the Principles of Argumentation

Argumentation is the process of presenting and supporting a claim through logical reasoning and evidence. It involves identifying the main points of an argument, analyzing their validity, and countering opposing....

Incorporating con paper discussions in the classroom can promote critical thinking and diverse perspectives among students in several ways:

1. Encourages students to consider different viewpoints: By presenting arguments against a particular idea or topic in a con paper, students are forced to consider alternative perspectives that they may not have thought of before. This can help to broaden their understanding of the topic and promote critical thinking by challenging them to evaluate different viewpoints.

2. Promotes analytical thinking: Con paper discussions require students to analyze and evaluate arguments presented in the paper, as well as formulate their own counterarguments. This can....

## The Power of Persuasive Language in Argumentative Essays

In the realm of argumentation, language wields an immense power to shape perceptions, influence opinions, and ultimately persuade readers to a particular viewpoint. By employing persuasive language techniques, writers can effectively sway their audience towards their stance on a given issue.

1. Establish Credibility and Ethos:

Persuasive writing begins with establishing the writer's credibility and ethos. This involves demonstrating expertise, experience, and a deep understanding of the topic. By presenting themselves as authoritative figures, writers can instill trust and confidence in their readers. Using facts, statistics, and expert opinions can further bolster their credibility.

2.....