The children in Nicaragua did not simply construct a set of signs denoting objects in their environment and rudimentary verbs. ISN is a real language with structure, grammar, and syntax. Since its development in the 1980s, ISN has become complex enough to evolve its own set of slang and idioms. ISN is also classified as the world's newest language.
Moreover, language appears to evolve in and out of social settings. ISN is the product not of one master child who imposed his or her own sign language on peers. Rather, ISN is the product of the collective group of children whose individual input becomes integrated into the language. New signs are incorporated gradually as they become agreed-upon symbols. ISN also has unique linguistic features that may help linguists understand prototypical languages in early human development; variations among different world dialects; or the neurological and sociological components of language generation....

Comrie, Reconstruction, typology and reality
Describe what grammaticalisation means, as this term is used by Comrie.

The best I can make of this -- since this writer never actually defines the term as he uses it -- is a concept that languages have a tendency to become more complex. This complexity in the way words are pronounced or the rules used to understand pronunciation seems to be what the author means by grammaticalisation.

What does Comrie mean by the "realization of the human language potential," as opposed to the development of this potential? (page 250)

It seems that the author is talking about the difference between coming to realize there is the potential to do or learn something and the actual development of whatever that something is. A friend of mine tells the story of first being shown how to knit at the age of 12. She went home…...

Linguistics 1 / Anthropology 104: Fall 2004
American Sign Language

Learning and using Sign Language will be pretty easy to do because there are so many books and web sites available that teaches it to anyone who wants to learn.

In life, people usually take things for granted like the ability to speak and hear. For the last few weeks I have been hanging out with my friend named XXXX. Until I really got to know her, I know that I sure took the ability to listen for granted. I have always seen myself as a healthy individual and my parents have always been very supportive by telling me that I'm pretty smart. So why wouldn't I take those things for granted? Along comes XXXX who is deaf and needs to communicate with her friends and family by using sign language. As a bird sits in a tree near my window, I have…...

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Works Cited

Rights of Deaf And HOH Under the ADA. Ed. Omar Zak. 12/30/1995. ADA. Retrieved on 22 Oct. 2004, from .

Handspeak. Welcome to the HandSpeak. Retrieved on 22 Oct. 2004, from

Where.com. Ed. American Sign Language. Where.com. Retrieved on 22 October 2004, from

Appendix A

Linguistics
Language can directly impact, if not totally constrain, perceptions and cognitions, according to the Sapir-Whorf linguistic relativity hypothesis. Ample evidence supports the hypothesis, as conceptualizations of reality and events are experimentally different in different language contexts, evaluated by testing native speakers of different languages and requesting their interpretation of various events. For example, language impacts perceptions of colors, which can in turn impact salient issues in the perception of reality (Jraissati, 2013). Implications of color differentiation differences may be witnessed in the worlds of art, business, and design. Lai & Narasimhan (2015) show that different languages conceptualize motion differently, with some languages like Spanish concentrating more on the directionality or path of motion, versus languages like English, which emphasize the manner or methods of a motion. It is easy to see why differential motion perceptions might influence witness perceptions of a crime, which is why officers of the law may…...

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References

Chen, S.X., Benet-Martinez, V. & Ng, J.C.K. (2014). Does language affect personality perception? Journal of Personality 82(2): 130-143.

Jraissati, Y. (2014). Proving universalism wrong does not prove relativism right. Philosophical Physiology 27(3).

Lai, V.T. & Narasimhan, B. (2015). Verb representation and thinking-for-speaking effects in Spanish-English bilinguals. In Cognitive Science Perspectives on Verb Representation and Processing. Springer.

Linguistics
Russian Formalism to Translation Studies Scholars

This report will focus on two translation methodologies, Russian Formalism and the Translation Studies Scholars. The paper is designed to be a contrast study of the two translation theories and will focus on their fundamental theoretical assumptions in regard to translations. The contrast will also include a critical analysis of the translation theories as opposed to only providing a simple literature review. In regard to translation, theories have been considered as a re-organizing the apparent clutter of details received from experience. Theories therefore are a means for reducing the clutter from the world.

Russian Formalism

The Russian Formalism movement was created during the 1920's and ran through 1930. The movement's objective was to create literary criticisms and interpretations. "Members of what can be loosely referred to as the Formalist school emphasized first and foremost the autonomous nature of literature and consequently the proper study of literature as…...

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Works Cited

Russian Formalism. Ed. Karen A. McCauley. Johns Hopkins Press.  http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/russian_formalism.html .

Linguistics

Linguistics
Teach

Teaching the Skill of Listening to Children

This short essay aims to discuss the process of teaching listening skills to children. The main focus is to describe problems that may arise and then to suggest some possible solutions for each in terms of the learning process in general. Listening as a skill set is one of the more critical skills needed by young learners. To show how difficult attaining listening is, consider this from a non-native speaker. "A common complaint from learners on first visiting an English-speaking country is that their listening skills cannot cope with fast spontaneous speech." (Cauldwell) It is believed that of the group of four skills humans use most often, listening should be considered to be by far one of the most frequently used. Consider how in the United States speaking and listening are usually taught in tandem, but from the teaching perspective, speaking over time gets…...

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References

Adams, James A. (1971). "A Closed-Loop Theory of Motor Learning." Journal of Motor Behavior 3:111-150.

Carlisle, Lynn (1988). "Communication Skills." Sacramento: California State Department of Education, Division of Special Education. ED 315-933.

Cauldwell, Richard. (2009). "Grasping The Nettle: The Importance Of Perception Work In Listening Comprehension." Retrieved on December 20, 2009, from  http://www.developingteachers.com/articles_tchtraining/perception1_richard.htm .

Edleston, Charlotte (1987). "A Program of Games and Activities to Increase Listening and Attentional Skills in Kindergarten." Nova University: Ed. D. Practicum, Dissertation/Theses. ED 292-586.

Linguistics
Space

Using CALL in Teaching Listening

In order to use computer-assisted language learning or CALL to teach listening skills, teachers should first understand what CALL actually is and that they should aim to "establish a methodology for benchmarking speech synthesis for computer-assisted language learning." (Zoe, 2009) CALL is a modern form of computer-based learning that has two features that make it distinctive from other forms of computer-based learning. The first is called bidirectional learning and the second feature is simply the idea of individualized learning. CALL as a process is good for listening skills because of the fact that just giving a speaker one's undivided attention in order to understand the speaker's point-of-view is fine but that equates to only a single directional activity. Active listening makes great listeners. Active listening is more than paying attention and it is bidirectional just like the CALL process. Because the concept of just listening is…...

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References

Kilickaya, Ferit. (2009). "The Effect of A Computer-Assisted Language Learning Course On Pre-Service English Teachers' Practice Teaching." Educational Studies (03055698). October, Vol. 35 Issue 4, p 437-448, 12p, 4 charts.

Liu, Min. (1994). "Hypermedia Assisted Instruction and Second Language Learning: A Semantic-Network-Based Approach." Computers in the Schools. Vol. 10 Issue 3/4, p 293, 20p, 2 charts, 3 diagrams.

Schwienhorst, Klaus. (2002). "Why Virtual, Why Environments? Implementing Virtual Reality Concepts In Computer-Assisted Language Learning." Simulation & Gaming. June, Vol. 33 Issue 2, p 196, 14p.

Son, Jeong-Bae (2006.) "Using Online Discussion Groups in a CALL Teacher Training Course." RELC Journal. April, Vol. 37, Issue 1, p 123-135, 13p.

Linguistics Application and eflection: Challenges of English Syntax
Passive voice: 1) "We are governed by men we have never heard of." 2) "We are given a set of tools to work with." 3) "The audience is driven by the images on the screen."

Comparatives: 1) "The more it appears on signs, the more it is accepted as normal." 2) "No one believes things are so good that they could not be better."

Logical Connectors: 1) "Therefore, there is only one way forward." 2) "Neither effective argument nor impassioned speeches will dissuade the viewer from the idea embedded in him by the image."

Modal Auxiliary Verbs: 1) "They will keep coming, one after another." 2) "One would do well to consider the ramifications of such a line of thought."

Verbal Phrases: 1) "Giving in is just the beginning of this process." 2) "The viewer does not have time to think over what is being shown."

elative Clauses:…...

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References

Freeman, D. E. and Freeman, Y. S. (2014). Essential Linguistics: What You

Need to Know to Teach Reading, ESL, Spelling, Phonics, Grammar. Chapter 6., Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Krashen, S. D. (2003). Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use. Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann.

Linguistics Morpheme Count
SPPA 3852 Language Sample Analysis Guidelines

Language Form:

Count the number of morphemes for each utterance. (15)

Add the number of morphemes and divide by the number of utterances to compute MLU. (10)

MLU= Total number of morphemes/total number of utterances.

In a separate column, identify the type of morphemes seen by utterance (15).

Language Content:

Lexical diversity

Document the different types of words seen in the child's lexicon with examples (such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, locational prepositions, modifiers, articles, auxiliary verbs, copulas, gerunds, infinitives)

Sentence Types:

Types of sentences seen in child's communication. Complete the tabular form on the template to the extent possible to indicate the presence of declarative, interrogative, embedded and conjoined sentence constructions. Use the resource guide to identify examples in your language sample.

Language Use:

Identify the functions for which the child was able to communicate to the extent you can observe from the sample. By citing the utterances numbers indicate where:

1. The child…...

Linguistics-Based Intervention Plan
English Language Learner Information: Native Spanish speaker, male

Age/Grade: 7th grade

Overall English Proficiency Level: Moderate

English eading Level (if doing a reading intervention): 7th

English Writing Level (if doing a writing intervention): 5th

Targeted Area of Weakness in eading or Writing

(e.g., grammatical structures, use of reading skills and strategies, writing structure or organization, vocabulary acquisition, etc.)

Grammatical structures -- syntax

Evidence from Linguistics in egards to that area of weakness (Summarize here in bullet point form.)

• Student shows limited ability to identify parts of speech

• Student does not link words appropriately in writing

• Student does not use phrases properly

• The goal is for the student to acquire understanding of syntax

Plan Using Evidence from Linguistics to Address Weakness (indicate in parentheses where procedures match up with the evidence from linguistics delineated above)

The procedure to teach syntactical skills to the ELL will begin with the teacher showing how to diagram a simple, compound and complex sentence…...

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References

Freeman, D. E. and Freeman, Y. S. (2014). Essential Linguistics: What You Need to Know to Teach Reading, ESL, Spelling, Phonics, Grammar. Chapter 6., Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Krashen, S. D. (2003). Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Lasnik (2001) examined the subject of object shift and concluded that if the verb does not raise in front of the object that was shifted, the resulting sentence is grammatically incorrect. When the object shift is applied to the sentence, "Carol read a book," it becomes, "Carol a book read," or "Carol a book did read." Neither of the latter is acceptable or understandable to the recipient as written. This case casts considerable doubt on Chomsky's EPP theory to be applied in every case.

osengren (2002) argues that the EPP is not feature driven and that it does not result in the erasure of features. It is further argued that it is not directly related to the condition of being a subject. Therefore, in the case of expletives, there is no association between the subject and the expletive. osengren further argues that languages can be divided into EPP and non-EPP language.

Many…...

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References

Chomsky, N. (1995). The Minimalist Program.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Chomsky (2000). Minimalist Inquiries: The Framework. Step-by-Step: Essays on Minimalist

Syntax in honor of Howard Lasnik. Martin, r., D. Michaels and J. Uriagereka (eds).

Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

" Shin (2006) Shin also states that the CMC literature "illustrates shifts of focus to different layers of context." Early on, research relating to CMC in language learning and teaching looked at the linguistic content of CMC text to examine how language learners could improve certain communication functions and learn linguistic figures through CMC activities (lake, 2000; Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995; Ortega, 1997; Pellettieri, 2000; Smith 2000, Sotlillo, 2000; Toyoda & Harrison, 2002, Tudini, 2003; Warschauer, 1996) Recent studies of "tellecollaborative projects have examined how language learners jointly construct the contexts of their CMC activities, as part of their focus on tensions among intercultural communication partners. (elz, 2003, 2003; Kramsch & Thorn, 2002; O'Dowd, 2003; Ware 2000, War & Kramsch, 2005) IN the study of Shin (2006) which was "informed by Ware's (2005) examination of a tellecollaborative communication project between American college students and German students" Shin (2006) looks into…...

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Bibliography

Introduction to Computational Linguistics (2006) Computer-Assisted Language Learning  http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/ling361/ling361_call.html .

Lusnia, Karen B. (1000) Teaching Teachers Long-Distance: A Paradigm-Shift for the Teacher-Planner in Mexico - Applied Linguistics. Paper presented at the International Conference on Language Teacher Education.

Bakhtin, M.M. (1981). Excerpts from discourse in the novel. In M. Holquist (Ed.), The dialogic imagination: Four essays by M.M. Bakhtin. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Bateson, G. (2000). Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. Chicago, IL: University Of Chicago Press.

English for Academic purposes (EAP) teaching and research have come up. These are the systematic functional linguistics (SFL) approaches in Australia and other parts of the world (for example Lee, 2010; Hood, 2006; Woodward-Kron, 2009) and Academic Literacy approaches in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world (for example Lillis & Scott, 2008; Turner, 2004; Thesen & Pletzen, 2006). Despite the two approaches drawing from sociocultural and ethnographic traditions, they tend to have a focus on various facets of EAP. As a language theory, SFL has used linguistic analysis for the establishment of nature of discourses and avenues of getting students participate in the discourses. The pedagogy and research have focused on language systems, language being used and texts. Most academic research literatures have focused on investigating ethnographic leanings and critiquing the predominant institutional and academic practices. The methods in use have focused on finding practices, identities…...

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Bibliography

Achugar, M. & Colombi, C., n.d.. Systemic Functional Linguistic explorations into the longitudinal study of the advanced capacities, s.l.: s.n.

Coffin, C. & Donohue, J., 2012. Academic Literacy and systemic functional linguistics: How do they relate?. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, pp. 64-75.

Chen, Y., & Foley, J. (2004).Problems with the metaphorical reconstrual of meaning in Chinese EFL learners' expositions. In L. Ravelli, & R. Ellis (Eds.). Analyzing academic writing: Contextualized frameworks (pp. 190-209). London: Continuum

Christie, F., & Maton, K. (Eds.). (2011). Disciplinarity: Functional linguistic and sociological perspectives. London: Continuum

Chomsky
Noam Chomsky and His Theory of Universal Grammar

Noam Chomsky name is not unknown to the world. Though he is not a psychologist or a psychiatrist but his contributions in the fields of psychology and linguistics has a great impact. His theory of generative grammar has been regarded as one of the most considerable contributions to the field of theoretical linguistics (Berger, 2005).

As a Person

Noam Chomsky, a well-known politician and an exceptional linguist, was born on December 7, 1928 in the state of Philadelphia in the home of a Hebrew scholar (Berger, 2005). He got his early education in Philadelphia while he went to study linguistics, mathematics and philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania. There, he also achieved his PhD degree though he completed most of his PhD work at Harvard University during early 1950s. Chomsky has been associated with Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1955. He has also been teaching…...

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References

Berger, V. (2005). Famous Psychologist: Noam Chomsky. Retrieved January 2, 2012 from  http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/famous_psychologist_and_psychologists/psychologist_famous_noam_chomsky.htm 

Cowie, F. (1999). What's Within?: Nativism Reconsidered. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved January 2, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54457478 

Lechte, J. (1994). Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers: From Structuralism to Postmodernity. London: Routledge. Retrieved January 1, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103622027 

Language Acquisition. (2009). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved January 4, 2012, from Questia database:  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=117028793

Morphology
A large range of the academic literature centering on the sociological as well as the cultural and linguistic properties of nicknaming can be found. This literature mostly focuses on only sociological and/or cultural properties and/or the linguistic properties but mostly with varying working definitions of the term nickname. For example, some researchers (e.g., Slater and Feinman 1985) notice the structural and sociological commonalities among both the formal and the nicknames whereas, according to some (e.g., Alford 1988) only the descriptive forms are the nicknames. The definition of the term nickname used in this paper may overlap with some of the categories however; there should be no surprise at the commonalities found between the informal and the formal names. As Pulgram (1954, 11-14) has said; the nicknames are the antecedents of many formal names.

Social meaning of nicknaming

The social meaning and function a nickname basically depends on the society that uses it.…...

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References

Aceto, M. 2002. Ethnic Personal Names and Multiple Identities in Anglo phone Caribbean Speech Communities in Latin America. Language in Society 31: 577 -- 608.

Alford, R.D. 1988. Naming and Identity: A Cross-cultural Study of Personal Naming Practices. New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press.

Aronoff, M. And Fudeman, K. 2010. What is Morphology (Fundamentals of Linguistics). Wiley-Blackwell

Benua, L. 1995. Identity Effects in Morphological Truncation. In Papers in Opti mality Theor y, ed. Jill N. Beckman, Laura Walsh Dickey, and Suzanne Urbanczyk, 77 -- 136. Amherst: Graduate Student Linguistic Assoc., Univ. Of Massachusetts.

While many fields of study seem to only have academic applications, sociolinguistics has many real-world applications.  Sociolinguistics examines how various cultural factors impact the use of language, not only in what languages are spoken by people in various groups, but also how that language is spoken by those people.  The various factors that can influence the language someone speaks or how they speak a language include, but are not limited to: gender, ethnicity, religion, status, level of education, age, and geographical distribution.  The primary languages spoken in Algeria are Algerian Arabic (Darja),....

The evolution of the word "queer" and its modern-day connotations have been influenced by a variety of cultural factors, including:

1. LGBTQ+ activism and community: LGBTQ+ activists and communities have reclaimed the word "queer" as a way to challenge traditional notions of gender and sexuality, and to build a sense of unity and solidarity among marginalized groups.

2. Academia: In the field of queer theory and queer studies, the word "queer" has been used to challenge and destabilize norms and conventions related to gender and sexuality, leading to a more expansive and inclusive understanding of these identities.

3. Popular media and entertainment: The....

The theory of artificial intelligence (AI) is based on the idea that machines can be designed to mimic human intelligence. AI aims to develop computer systems and technology that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as problem-solving, decision-making, language understanding, and perception. The goal of AI is to create systems that can learn from data, adapt to new situations, and make decisions without human intervention. AI is founded on principles from various fields including computer science, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, and mathematics.
One key aspect of the theory of AI is the concept of machine learning, which....

Key Findings on the Acoustic Characteristics of Telugu Vowels

Vowel F1 and F2 Frequencies

Telugu vowels have higher F1 and F2 frequencies than other Dravidian languages, such as Tamil and Kannada (Krishna, 2018).
The high F1 and F2 values are attributed to the influence of Sanskrit, where vowels are typically pronounced with a higher pitch (Baumann, 1999).

Vowel Duration

Telugu vowels are generally longer in duration than vowels in other Dravidian languages (Narasimhamurthy, 2009).
The longer duration is attributed to the use of vowel length distinction in Telugu, where long vowels contrast with short vowels (Permadi, 2015).

Formant Bandwidth

Telugu vowels have narrower....