Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Causes of why an Individual may have Difficulties in Reading.
Linguistic causes of why an individual may have difficulties in reading

The causes

Auditory language related impairment - some individuals with reading difficulty have deficiency in distinguishing differences in sound. In a similar way, some individuals may have difficulty in detecting tones within noise

Visual magnocellular-Deficit hypothesis - impairment in visual processing system may lead some word to seem incoherent and to confuse stumbling readers

Neural - Aside from deficiency in the visual and the auditory system, imaging studies show that readers have processing deficits in the cerebellum, as well as having smaller lobes in the cerebellum compared to non-dyslexic participants.

Memory deficits

Characteristics a student may display

Delay in speaking- starting with speech older than the general age of 12 months

Difficulties with pronunciation -- often mixing syllables and omitting beginning syllables

Difficulty in learning the letters of the alphabet

Recalling incorrect phonemes -- such as seeing…...

Linguistic relativity hypothesis argues that humans see colors less with their eyes than with their language. (Fountain, 1999) The linguistic relativity hypothesis is important to help in understanding the reasoning behind the way that thought processes develop with the different cultures. The thought processes determine how language comes about and the reasons that the same word can mean different things with different cultures.
In the eyes of a linguist, colors are categorized in eleven words. But, in different cultures the number of words to categorize colors is different. Some cultures have as few as five words to categorize colors. If one culture categorizes color differently from another culture, they would perceive it different as well. What may be green to one culture may be blue to another culture. Linguistic categories affect the way the world is seen. The results support the idea of linguistic relativity if they show color perception as…...

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Purdue is a scholarly source that connects to an article with the New York Times, a news source. The article discusses how the use of the meaning of colors in different cultures can shape how language is used and the different meanings of the words can and do change from one culture to another in languages. It discusses how the linguistic relativity hypothesis argues that colors are seen more through language than with sight.

Swoyer, C. (2003, Feb 2). Relativism. Retrieved from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:  http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/index.html 

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a scholarly site. This entry discusses the meaning of relativism, the different contexts of relativism, and how they shape modes of thought, and standards of reasoning. It discusses how the principles and practices of different cultures work with the different methods of relativism in shaping thought processes and standards of reasoning to develop different words and meanings with different cultures. It also discusses how linguistic categories affect the way we see the world. The different categories of words are different from each culture and cause each culture to perceive things different than other cultures do.

The man claimed that he had not met either of the two landlords in person that he had been attempting to contact for application. Thus, the man began his pursuit into legal action under the terms of racial discrimination. The case, Johnson v. Jensen, one of the first documented arguments of linguistic profiling was brought forth for consideration (Erard, 2002).
As in the case of Johnson v. Jensen, the defendants - the accused, often play the part of an ignorant or unaware innocent victim of wrongful accusations. It is easy for one to "play-stupid" when there has been nothing more than a phone conversation as compared to a face-to-face communication. Little can be held concrete as evidence against the defendants claim to be unaware of the ethnicity of the accuser, therefore the dangers of linguistic profiling can then extend to the oppressed. When accusations that incur legalities, there is a…...

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Bibliography

Paul McFedries and Logophilia Limited, Word Spy (June, 2002). Retrieved April 27, 2007, from the World Wide Web:  http://www.wordspy.com/words/linguisticprofiling.asp 

Rice, P. (2006). Linguistic profiling: The sound of your voice may determine if you get that apartment or not, Washington Univ. In St. Louis, News and Information, 18, 29-30.

Baugh Ph. D., J. (2007). Educational Address, retrieved April 27th, 2007, from the World Wide Web:  http://artsci.wustl.edu/~anthro/blurb/b_baugh.html 

Purtell, J. (2005). The Race for the American Dream, (pp. 90-107) Wipf and Stock

8). Follow the proceeding examples for a clearer understanding;
A -- Ngi - fun - I zincwadi.

NEG -- 1S.SBJ- want- NEG 10.books

Translation: I don't want any books.

In the urge to attain a shorter gloss, the augment appears separate. However, apart from the class 15 alone, the class prefix is always glommed onto a noun stem.

For the sake of the topic discussed in this paper, only the relevant classes that affect syntactic issues will be discussed; evidently, most of the class 1a and 2a nouns in the table above could either be names of the Zulu people, for instance uSipho, which if translated to English, "siphon" was a man's name (Chandler, 2005, p.10). The nouns could also be kinship terms like ugongo, which means "grandmother." To distinguish between the classes 1 and 1a, then the nominal morphology has to be identified. Agreement morphology is usually comprised of verbs and adjectives. The discussions…...

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References

Baker, M.C. (1988). A theory of Grammatical Function Changing. The University of Chicago Press, 1(1), 216-228.

Posthumus, L. (2000). The So-Called Adjective in Zulu. South African Journal of African Languages, 20 (2), 3-4.

Wildsmith-Cromarty, R. (2003). Do Learners Learn Zulu the Way Children Do? A response to Suzman. South African Journal of African Languages, 23 (3), 175-188.

Mathonsi, N.N. (2001). Prepositional and Adverb Phrases in Zulu: a linguistic and lexicographic problem. South African Journal of African Languages, 21 (2), p.163.

A similar change occurred in ritish in which only stressed I and us were lowered and the lowering was caused by original long a and by the final -- a in Latin loanwords. This change is not Common Insular Celtic because it postdates raising in Goidelic and raising is not Common Insular Celtic sound change." (Tristram, 2007, p.100)
Tristram writes that in Goidelic "syncope is a completely regular process" which impacts every second syllable of a polysyllabic word, counting the last syllable (following the syncope). And in all likelihood occurring at the last of the Ogam period in the middle of the 6th century. Paraphrased) Stated to be a common morphological innovation "was the creation of conjugated prepositions or preposition nouns from earlier prepositions which were followed by inflected forms of pronouns both in ritish and Goidelic languages and personal pronouns merged with prepositions into "conjugated prepositions." (2007, p.101) the…...

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Bibliography

Baldi, Philip and Page, B. Richard (2003) Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica Theo Vennemann, Gen. Nierfeld, in: Patrizia Noel Aziz Hanna (Ed.), Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs 138, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 2003, pp. xxii + 977. Linguia 116 (2006) 2183-2220.

Ball, Martin J. And Fife, James (2002) the Celtic Languages. Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Fortson, Benjamin W. (2005) Indo-European Language and Culture. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.

Kortlandt, Frederik (1989) the Spread of the Indo-Europeans. Online available at:   Accessed 5 Aug 2007.http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art111e.pdf .

Unlike pure slang, folkloric words tend to be less mutable and plastic in use and structure, and may last for years within the region.
However, drawing a specific distinction between folkloric and linguistic definitions of slang can result in hair-splitting, rather than truly useful dichotomies of meaning. For example, throughout several generations, children may use the same types of "specialized language" to refer to childhood pursuits, such as names for games and even distinctive languages, including as pig Latin, although young people's slang is usually thought to be highly changeable, and not folkloric or constant in character (Folklife, 2009, Teaching students). Similarly, slang amongst subgroups can have a great deal of traction, even over several generations, like a blowout in football, or 'hitting the wall,' to refer to one's energy being totally expended in track and field, even though these athletes may encompass people of many different backgrounds and regions,…...

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Works Cited

Akmajan, a. (2001) Linguistics. Cambridge: MIT Press.

"Folklife & folk art: Education resource guide. (2009). Teaching students about verbal folklore.

Retrieved October 18, 2009 athttp://library.usu.edu/Folklo/edresources/verbal.html

esearchers define language in these kinds of studies somewhat differently from one another. Language can be written, spoken, or even just understood, as there are those people who understand someone speaking to them in a different language, but they are not fluent enough to carry on a conversation or to read the language in a book or newspaper. Because of that, it is very important for researchers to consider the issue of language carefully. Language fluctuates between different people and different cultures (Niemeier & Dirven, 2000). For most of the studies, though, researchers define language as the native language (both spoken and written) of the individual subject or study participant (Niemeier & Dirven, 2000). That way, the participants all know the language fluently and their thoughts are not influenced by their inability to come up with a word for an object.

Thought can influence language in some cases, instead of the…...

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References

Deutscher, G. (2010). Does your language shape how you think? New York Times Magazine.

Niemeier, S, & Dirven, R. (Eds). (2000). Evidence for linguistic relativity, New York: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

To this point, Chouliarki (2000) argues that "the facilitation of deliberative processes among audiences is a matter not only of changing institutional arrangements (towards a regulation of marketized media) but also of changing the mode of articulation of media discourse itself; even though the latter may be a consequence of the former, each is a sine qua non-for deliberative democracy." (Chouliarki, 293)
To an extent then, these approaches to language and the degree to which the cognitive experience of this language are shared in a culture will dictate how extensively democracy is truly fostered. Beyond this, there are distinct messages of self-reference and the implications of power structures within a culture such as may occur when one reduces the content of a statement in the interests of word economy in settings where less formality is required. As a simple example, a speaker may reply to an inquiry regarding how he…...

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Works Cited:

Chouliaraki, L. (2000). Political discourse in the news: democratizing responsibility or aestheticizing politics?." Discourse & Society, 11(3), 293. Online at .

Christie, P. (2001). Due Respect: Essays on English and English-related Creoles in the Caribbean. University of West Indies Press.

Coulmas, F. (2005). Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers Choices. CUP.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. Canto.

If one is to define "but" or "oh" as the dictionary defines it and only as such, it would be difficult to understand why a speaker is using these words the way they do.
Intonation also plays a part in discourse markers. In her book, Discourse Markers, Schiffrin (1988, 6) states that discourse markers are expression used to organize discourse, however, the impact of this single expression on discourse will differ depending on the way it is said (i.e., the intonation). For example, "oh" with a rising intonation might be interpreted as a request for confirmation, as in: "I think the party's at six o'clock." "Oh?" But this same expression with a falling intonation might be interpreted not as a request for confirmation, but as an acknowledgement: "I think the party's at six o'clock." "Oh" (1988, 6).

Meter: Some texts take on a metrical structure that is characterized by a pre-existing…...

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References:

Aarts, B. & McMahon, a. (2006). The handbook of English linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell;

1st edition.

Akmajian, a., Demers, R.A., Farmer, a.K., & Harnish, R.M. (2010). Linguistics: An introduction to language and communication. The MIT Press; 6th edition.

Brown, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. MA: Cambridge University Press.

linguistic processes underlie understanding sentences and anaphoric reference?
Cognitive Psychology meets the Lexicon of Linguistics:

The cognitive processes of understanding sentences with anaphoric references

According to the essay, "The return of "visiting relatives": pragmatic effects in sentence processing," by the linguists . Farrar and A. Kawamoto, the term "visiting relatives is boring" is an excellent example of inherent structural ambiguities in any language, though in this case, specifically the English language. (Farrar & Kawamoto, 1993) In other words, when a listener hears this common phrase, perhaps around the holidays, it is uncertain if the speaker is referring to the activity of visiting the speaker's relations or to the actual boring nature of the relations themselves.

One could argue, of course, that either way, this is irrelevant, as the two ideas are interrelated -- when boring people visit one's home, life often feels quite boring, just as visiting boring people can itself be quite…...

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Works Cited

Eysenck & Keane. Cognitive Psychology. Fourth Edition.

Farrar, W. & A. Kawamoto. (1993) ' The return of "visiting relatives": Pragmatic effects in sentence processing.

Linguistics
Begley, S. (2009). What's in a word? Newsweek/he Daily Beast. Retrieved online: http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2009/07/08/what-s-in-a-word.html

Begley provides a helpful overview of the work of Boroditsky in the field of linguistic relativity. he theory was once lacking empirical grounding, but Boroditsky changed that, to provide scientific proof that language indeed shapes perception and cognition.

Boroditsky, L. (n.d.). Linguistic relativity. Retrieved online: http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~lera/papers/linguistic-relativity.pdf

Boroditsky's (n.d.) "intermediate paper" provides the foundation for linguistic relativity. he author describes how linguistic relativity shapes conceptions of space, spatial relations, time, shapes, substances, and other qualities of the perceptual universe. Language shapes habitual thought, which impacts the way cultures perceive and communicate their realities.

Bowers, J.S. & Pleydell-Pierce, C.W. (2011). Swearing, euphemisms, and linguistic relativity. PLoS ONE 6(7): e22341. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022341

Bowers & Pleydell-Pierce (2011) contribute to the growing body of empirical research on the linguistic relativity hypothesis. he authors found that participants reacted differently, in terms of their autonomic nervous system responses measured by…...

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The theory is relativistic because it suggests that there may be no absolute "reality," due to evidence showing how language impacts the perception of reality. In other words, reality is relative to language. The categories people make, and the objects or ideas that fit into those categories, shape perceptions of the world in ways that are fundamentally important. It is language that creates those categories, enforces them, and thus impacts the ways people think. For example, linguistic relativity theory shows how language can impact spatial relations. Begley (2009) points out the Australian Aboriginal Kuuk Thaayorre people's incredible sense of spatial reasoning and navigational ability. Linguistic relativity suggests that the Kuuk Thaayorre keen sense of direction in new places is due to their using compass point directions for everything, rather than relying on the relational terms "left" and "right" like we do in English. If a person has been thinking in terms of absolute directions from the compass, then it makes sense that they would not get lost as easily.

In general, "having a name for something allows you to perceive it more sharply," (Begley 2009). This point of linguistic relativity is made best in experiments with color. Some cultures have words for colors that do not exist in other languages, which means that their perception of color is radically different. Such findings may seem trivial, but they have huge implications for various fields in the social sciences. For example, linguistic relativity theory may have a bearing on how to best teach new languages. Kousta, Vinson, and Vigliocco (2008) show that bilingual people think in the language they are speaking in, which also proves the common adage that in order to learn a language, a person must learn to "think" in that language rather than translate word for word directly. If, as Boroditsky (n.d.) points out, Koreans have a different word for something that fits tightly vs. loosely, then learning Korean would require a fundamental understanding of this difference in representing reality. The same is true for languages that have gendered categories. As Begley (2009) points out, the Germans describe bridges using words that the French would never use -- partly because the word bridge is feminine in German and masculine in French.

The findings of linguistic relativity studies show that the theory may also be crucial for improving cross-cultural communications in business. It is important, for example, to know how another person perceives and conceives of the world in order to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. Another meaningful application of linguistic relativity theory is highlighted by Bowers & Pleydell-Pierce (2011). Bowers & Pleydell-Pierce (2011) show that linguistic relativity can be applied to everyday communications even among people of the same linguistic background. Curse words have an impact on people's autonomic nervous system responses, whereas neutral or more euphemistic words did not. These findings can also be applied to the world of advertising, which relies heavily on keywords and cue words to solicit customers.

Evaluation of Kirk Semple’s “Immigrants Who Speak Indigenous Languages Encounter Isolation”  As Kirk Semple shows in “Immigrants Who Speak Indigenous Languages Encounter Isolation” many Mexican and Central American immigrants in the U.S. are isolated from their communities because they know neither English nor Spanish. Instead, they are speakers of their hometown native languages—dialects like Mixtec—which make it impossible for them to integrate into either the Spanish communities in the U.S. or into the mainstream English-speaking world of America. This paper will show why there is a need for more services to be provided to these immigrants so that they do not have to live their lives in fear or want.
The biggest problems that immigrants from Central America face are ultimately linguistic—especially if they are from communities in Central America where Spanish (the language that most people expect Latinos to speak) was never adopted. As Semple shows, “these language barriers, combined with widespread…...

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Works Cited

Semple, Kirk. “Immigrants Who Speak Indigenous Languages Encounter Isolation.” In

Everything’s an Argument with Readings, ed. by Andrea Lunsford, John J. Ruszkiewicz and Keith Walters. 

Nature of the Linguistic Sign
Human beings have different capabilities with reference to their potential of acquiring and using language. Language constitutes one of the most important elements that enables communications and determines the formation of relationships among different entities. It is in most instances viewed as a complicated structure of communication. Language refers to the organization of signs which could be illustrated as a synchronically rather than diachronically. I.e. It is composed of a set of relationships autonomous of any adjustments that come about over time. It is a social institution and therefore an independent entity which is basically not a factor of a speaker but a product which is gradually understood by an individual. According to some linguistics, signs make the fundamental units of language and thus making this feature compose of elements of graphics and sound- image which are found within a signifier (Bally & Sechehaye 15). Language…...

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Works Cited

Bally Charles & Sechehaye, Albert, Course In General Linguistics: Ferdinand De Saussure, Toronto: McGraw-Hill Book Company

Desprete, Vinciane, the Body We Care So Much For: Figures Of Anthropo-Zoo-Genesis, Body and Society, 10 (2/3)

Quigley, Timothy, Structuralism and Poststructuralism, 2009, March 22

Women speak more dramatically and colorfully than men. ut they are a phenomenon of gender rather than a biological consequence. Amos (2012) proposes that the body language expressions of the sexes depend on their distinctive behaviors and purposes. Some are programmed and some are learned. Cameron (2007), however, disputes that these differences are only a myth. A study disproves the claim that these differences come from the unequal roles and status of the sexes. Tannen (1994) takes this position from her mentor and agrees that women make intimate rapport-talks while men engage in information or report-talks. Voegeli (2005) contributes that women's speech is more polished and better formed than men's whose speech is generally more direct and factual. These data collectively state that men and women use language differently.
ILIOGRAPHY

Amos, J.A. 2012, 'ody language differences between men and women', ody

Language Expert, [Online] Available at http://www.bodylaguageexpert.co.uk/GenderDifferencesCategory.html

Cameron, D. 2007, 'What language barriers',…...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amos, J.A. 2012, 'Body language differences between men and women', Body

Language Expert, [Online] Available at http://www.bodylaguageexpert.co.uk/GenderDifferencesCategory.html

Cameron, D. 2007, 'What language barriers', the Guardian, [Online] Available at  http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/oct/01/gender.books 

Marlow, D. 2013, 'The language varieties of women and men', University of South

" (Keller, nd) Hawkins uses syntactic weight in explaining word order frequencies and the relative acceptability of different orders in native speakers' judgments." (Keller, nd)
The work of Christiansen (2002) entitled: "Case, Word Order, and Language Learnability: Insights from Connectionist Modeling" it is related that children learn "most of their native language within the first five years of life." (2002) Christiansen further relates that the most difficult task in learning a language involves "mapping a sequence of words onto some sort of interpretation of what the sequence is supposed to mean." (2002) in other words if the child is able to understand a sentenced then the child "needs to determine the grammatical roles of the individual words so that she can work out who did what to whom."(Ibid) the work of Saffran, Aslin & Newport (199) acknowledges linguistic universals that are common "across radically different languages" and which indicate existing inherent…...

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Bibliography

Keller, Frank Institute for Communicating and Collaborative systems, Division of Informatics, University of Edinburgh. UK. Gleitman, Lila R. And Joshi, Aravid K. eds, (2000) Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Mahawah, NJ; Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000.

Yama*****a, H. And Chang, F. (nd) Sentence Production in Japanese. Rochester Institute of Technology - Anthropology. Online available at http://email.eva.mpg.de/~chang/papers/jprodhandbook.pdf.

Rambow, O. And Joshi, a.K. (1995) a Processing Model for Free Word Order Languages" Institute for Research in Cognitive Science, IRCS Technical Reports Series. University of Pennsylvania, 1995. Online available at  http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1130&context=ircs_reports ..

Parker, Brian (2006) Word Order and Formalized Information Structure in Japanese Ohio University. Online available at  http://aolsearch.aol.com/aol/search?query=definition%3A+free+word+order%2C+scrambling&page=13&nt=null&userid=4077659711316363726&encquery=99c5f34c598f1bdefa46eb3f4e6f3a1535bc8a175d9d4420d62fb8527be753e9ae3463cecdde6d88&ie=UTF-8&invocationType=keyword_rollover&clickstreamid=-2316888368559440924

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In our opinion, at this time the most pressing challenge faced by school leaders is safely continuing with student education while also managing the risk of disease posed to people by the current COVID-19 pandemic.  Many school districts immediately scrambled to get technology into place to support distance-learning, but quickly found that while the technology is important for delivery of classroom materials, the technology is only a tool in the hands of educators.  Educators need to be able to teach using the technology, and, if they are unable to do so, they put their students at a disadvantage.

Moving forward,....

While many fields of study seem to only have academic applications, sociolinguistics has many real-world applications.  Sociolinguistics examines how various cultural factors impact the use of language, not only in what languages are spoken by people in various groups, but also how that language is spoken by those people.  The various factors that can influence the language someone speaks or how they speak a language include, but are not limited to: gender, ethnicity, religion, status, level of education, age, and geographical distribution.  The primary languages spoken in Algeria are Algerian Arabic (Darja),....