Keynesian economics is an economic theory based on the ideas of John Maynard Keynes (Jackson 29). First published in 1936, Keynes's theory suggests that general trends may overwhelm the micro-level behavior of individuals. He stated," This book is chiefly addressed to my fellow economists ... I myself held with conviction for many years the theories which I now attack, and I am not, I think, ignorant of their strong points" (Keynes). Keynes asserted the importance of the aggregate demand for goods as the driving factor, especially in downturns. From this he argued that government policies could be used to promote demand at a macro level, to fight high unemployment and deflation of the sort seen during the 1930s. Keynes thought that the economy was the most important issue of the time as evidenced by his statement, "The ideas of economists . . . are more powerful than is commonly understood.…...

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Works Cited

Banguero, H. "[the Decline in Population Growth, Income Distribution, and Economic Recession]." Desarro Soc.11 (1983): 19-44.

Baum, G. "Capitalism Ex-Cathedra. Sources of Hope in Tough Economic Times." Health Prog 73.3 (1992): 44-8.

Friedman, M. Economics and the Public Interest. New Jersey: Trustees of Rutgers College, 1955.

Ingham, G. "Capitalism, Money and Banking: A Critique of Recent Historical Sociology." Br J. Sociol 50.1 (1999): 76-96.

economics is derived from "oikonomikos," which means to be skilled in household management. Although the root word is very old, the discipline of economics as we understand it today is a relatively recent development. Modern economic theories emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries as the western world began its transformation from an agrarian to an industrial society. Despite the enormous differences between then and now, the economic problems with which society struggles remain the same. How does a nation balance the available resources with the demand on a regional, national, and now global scale in order to produce high levels of employment, and create real and lasting wealth which benefits her citizens? What is the motivating factor for workers to engage the economic struggle of building wealth? How does a nation provide, create and maintain a rising standard of living for ourselves and future generations?
Progress in economic thought…...

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References

Butlin M.W, Boyce M.W, (1985), 'Monetary Policy in Depression and Recovery', Working Papers in Economic History, The Australian National University, Australia.

Edwards, Lindy. (2002) How to Argue with an Economist: Reopening Political Debate in Australia Cambridge University Press.

Friedman, Milton. (1948). "A Monetary and Fiscal Framework for Economic Stability," American Economic Review 37: 245-264.

Keynes, J.M. (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. London: Macmillan.

There are many potential actions that could have been taken to help prevent the closing of GM and the job losses, plant closings, and economic catastrophe that is likely to occur as the once unstoppable giant collapses (Wolff, 2009).
The UAW won above subsistence level wages for GM employees, which should have theoretically had the same effect as an economic stimulus in the traditional Keynesian sense. However, rather than being rewarded with increased demand, GM workers found themselves displaced when the company decided to move production to countries where the workers did not attempt to cut into company profits by demanding fair wages. The company profited and these changes had little affect on demand. The world still demanded GM cars, regardless of where they were produced.

The impact of displaced workers should have created the affect of decreased demand according to both Keynesian and Marxian economics. However, when one takes a…...

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References

Arestis, P. & Karakitsos, E. (2008). The U.S. housing slump and the consumer. Journal of Post

Keynesian Economics. 30 (30, 335-352.

Binder, A. (2002). The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Economics Library. Retrieved June

18, 2009 from  http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/KeynesianEconomics.html .

Keynesian evolution: Analysis and Criticism believe myself to be writing a book on economic theory which will largely revolutionize -- not, I suppose, at once, but in the course of the next ten years -- the way the world thinks about economic problems"
John Maynard (Keynes, Letter to G.B. Shaw, January 1, 1935)

Prior to the Keynesian evolution, may economists and politicians viewed economics from a "micro" perspective. They saw factors such as unemployment, interest rates, profit and loss as related to individual organizations and the impact of individual transactions. In modern times, the idea of macroeconomics is much more widespread, and the impact of economic endeavors is viewed as part of an economic whole, or national/global approach. Part of the credit for this much more diverse and broad view is due to the efforts of John Maynard Keynes, through his publications and the "Keynesian evolution."

Though Keynes is often criticized for his…...

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References

Briggs, A. (ed.) (1962) Fabian Essays, Allen & Unwin, London Cairncross, A. (1978) 'Keynes and Planning, in Thirwall, A.P. (ed.), Keynes and Laissez-Faire, Macmillan, London

Galbraith, John Kenneth. "The Joys of Recession," (Winter, 1994): 8-9, March 15, 2003,  http://epn.org/prospect/16/16galb.html 

Keynes, M. (ed.) (1975) Essays on John Maynard Keynes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

John Maynard

Economic Influences
John Keynes is one of the most influential economists largely due to his theory of Keynesian economics, which dealt with his modern macro-economic policies (Skorburg, 2009). His work is linked to the Great Depression, partly because he advocated public and governmental spending to base national economies on. His most celebrated piece of literature is General Theory.

Adam Smith is the quintessential Age of Enlightenment economist who published Wealth of Nations in 1776, which posited the viewpoint that free enterprise and laissez faire policies would benefit the free market system.

People wouldn't ordinarily link Karl Marx to a free market system since he advocated the exact opposite of that, a form of communism that results in socialism, but his Communist Manifesto -- which presaged the ussian evolution -- inspired many free market communists to oppose his ideas.

Friedrich Von Hayek's theories, which are included in oad to Serfdom, his most noted work, are…...

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References

Kates, S. (1999). Top-ten economists: -- one view. www.mises.org. Retrieved from  http://mises.org/daily/355 

Skorburg, J. (2009). The top 10 most influential economists of all time. www.opposingviews.com. Retrieved from  http://www.opposingviews.com/i/the-top-10-most-influential-economists-of-all-time#

Increases in manufacturing reveal benefits early, one can track the benefit at all stages and report the benefits to the public quickly. According to a statement released by the Center for American Progress, "solar panels don't install themselves. Wind turbines don't manufacture themselves. Homes and buildings don't retrofit or weatherize themselves. In our industrial society, trees don't even PLANT themselves, anymore. eal people must do all of that work." The public wants a quick fix, they want to start hearing that the economy is doing better and a focus on manufacturing will accomplish this. Additionally, there has been increasing pressure on the White House to focuses on alternative energy sources. Such a policy would gain favor with democratic and liberal environmentalists.
4. Do you consider your views to be more aligned with a classical or Keynesian approach to economic thinking? Explain. (There is no right or wrong answer). See module…...

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REFERENCE LIST

Chea S., (2010). "Manufacturers' Orders as an Economic Indicator." Associated Content February, 2010. Retrieved from  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2685879/manufacturers_orders_as_an_economic_pg2.html?cat=3 .

Federal Reserve bank of New York. Durable Goods. Retrieved from  http://www.newyorkfed.org/education/bythe.html#durgoods .

Hoexter, M., (2009). "Cap and Trade: An Unserious Policy Framework.. Towards a Serious Climate Policy -- Part 2."Climate Policy, Energy Policy, Sustainable Thinking, December 2009.

Podesta, J., Stern T., (2007). "Capturing the Energy Opportunity: Creating a Low-Carbon Economy." The Center for American Progress, Nov. 2007. Retrieved  http://www.americanprogress.org .

For the period of the late 1960s and early 1970s, West Germany strived to assist the dollar. The United States and many other nations pushed West Germany to reassess so as to make up for the dollar excess. (Germany in the World Economy)
At last, after escalating waves of conjectures, the retton Woods system had a collapse in August 1971. All through the post-retton Woods period, the deutsche mark stayed under pressure. In order to relieve strain within Europe, West Germany and other European states assented to peg their currencies to a special system of comparatively narrow exchange rate bands officially named the 'European narrow-margins agreement' but unofficially identified as the 'snake'. The United States and West Germany performed main roles in attempting to organize a new global monetary system. but, in spite of its willingness to make small exchange-rate alterations for the benefit of new currency arrangements, West Germany…...

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Bibliography

Little German Reform Would Go a Long Way" (Dec 1, 2003) Business Week. Issue: 3860; pg. 22. Retrieved from home.uchicago.edu/~gbecker / Businessweek/BW/2003/12_01_2003.pdf Accessed on 24 November, 2004

Economic Survey - Germany 2004: Main issues and policy challenges"

Retrieved at   Accessed on 24 November, 2004http://www.oecd.org/document/17/0,2340,en_2649_201185_33633425_1_1_1_1,00.html .

Economy of Germany" Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved at   on 25 November, 2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_GermanyAccessed 

Keynesian Aggregate Expenditure Model
Two Quotations:

Company profits grew strongly in the June quarter putting another question mark over the extent of the predicted economic slowdown..."

However the central bank acknowledged that the weaker data for capital spending intentions are at this point the only clear evidence of an impending slowdown"

These two quotations regarding the same economic scenario seem to pose the question to consumers and economists alike -- why a predicted economic slowdown, if company profits are growing strongly? hy place so much fear in the data regarding capital spending intentions on the part of consumers? hy turn to the tools macroeconomics has long focused on, that of monetary policy, which the central bank controls, and fiscal policy, which the federal government controls, to shift the current state of economic equilibrium, as described above? (Schenk, 1997, "Synthesis")

The answer lies in the Keynesian aggregate expenditure model. This model is the generic term…...

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Works Cited

Keynesian Aggregate Expenditure Model." (2004) Amos Web. Retrieved on June 20, 2004 at http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/gls.pl?fcd=dsp&key=Keynesian+aggregate+expenditure+model

Macroeconomic Equilibrium. (2004). Retrieved on June 20, 2004 at http://nova.umuc.edu/~black/meq00.html

Scheck, Robert. (1997) "Activism." Retrieved on June 20, 2004 at http://ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu/econ/Keynes/Activism.html

Scheck, Robert. (1997) "Synthesis." Retrieved on June 20, 2004 at http://ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu/econ/optional/ISLM/Overview14ma.html

disrupting America's economic system is a fundamental objective of terrorists
Even as the world continues to struggle with the terrible shock from the September 11 attacks in New York and Washington, one principle lesson has already become clear: disrupting our economic system is a fundamental objective of terrorists.

Prior to September 11, our economic environment was certainly not immune to terror, in comparison to many other nations; we lived relatively terror-free. Now, however, the aftermath of the terrorist attacks serves as a grim reminder that international relations and security developments can dramatically affect economic performance.

US History is replete with countless examples when macro fundamentals are overtaken by what economists refer to as, exogenous shocks -- surprise events that can profoundly and often unpredictably shift political and economic resources, and send even the most accurate forecasts astray. Commodity shocks, such as the two OPEC jolts in the 1970s, are classic examples of this…...

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References

Bagehot, Walter. 1927. Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market, John Murray, London.

Balbach, Anatol B. 1981. "How Controllable is Money Growth?" Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, vol 63, no 4, April, p. 5.

Becker, Gary S, Steven N. Kaplan, Kevin M. Murphy and Edward A Snyder. (2002 / winter). "The Economic Effects of September 11," GSB Magazine, University of Chicago's Graduate School of Business.

Bell, Stephanie. 2000. "Do Taxes and Bonds Finance Government Spending?." Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 603-620.

macroeconomic themes that have been taught or covered in this course is economic policy and its role in determining or influencing economic growth and development. Economic policy is a subject that has attracted considerable attention in recent months because of the presidential elections in the United States. Actually, monetary policy was one of the major issues in recent presidential campaigns and elections. This issue has also been subject of several publications by different new sources because of its significance in the country's economic growth and development. Paula Dwyer wrote an article to examine the recent rise of the Dow Jones Industrial Average in the aftermath of Donald Trump's election as the U.S. President. This analysis was carried out on the premise of the impact of Trump's economic policies on different aspects of the economy. The U.S. market has shown indication of its approval of Trump's economic policies in different…...

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Work Cited

Dwyer, Paula. "The Hidden Meaning of Dow 20,000." Online posting. Bloomberg Businessweek. Bloomberg L.P., 22 Dec. 2016. Web. 23 Dec. 2016. .

Balanced Federal Budgets
The federal government has a wide variety of responsibilities, most of which stem from programs that the government has created. Some of these outlays are discretionary, but many are not. The trade-offs for the federal government are usually not a question economics, but politics. The current federal budget for FY2016 shows a deficit of $474 billion. The largest outlays are for social security ($891 billion), other mandatory programs ($627), defense ($589), Medicare ($529) and non-defense discretionary, which covers a wide variety of different programs. Finding $474 billion to cut there -- or some of that money in conjunction with tax increases -- is inevitably going to be a challenge. Much of government spending in the budget is in the form of mandatory programs. Further, many of these are impossible, politically, to reduce. One does not simply cut Medicare payouts without losing a strong voting bloc, for example. The…...

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References

Government Finance Officers Association. (2014). Distinguished Budget Presentation Award Program (Budget Awards Program). Retrieved from  http://www.gfoa.co/sites/default/files/BudgetDetailedCriteriaLocationGuideFY2015.pdf 

Mikesell, J. L. (2014). Fiscal administration: Analysis and applications for the public sector (9th

ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

Economics: Neoclassical, Keynesian, And Marxian Theories
Social theories attempt to explain how people interact with each other, and with their surroundings. For this reason, it is believed that social theories shape society, so much so that people will theorize elements in their surroundings based on their life situations and what they experience in their interactions. Towards this end, what one person thinks or believes about a certain aspect may not necessarily be what another person thinks; people hold different theories about how the economy works, and how it influences human interactions - and this is particularly why we have multiple economic theories today. Social theories are broadly categorized into three -- humanism, structuralism, and dialectics. These three have been applied to economic theory to explain how the various elements of the economy interact to realize maximum outcomes. This text demonstrates how the aforementioned social theories have been used to shape the…...

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References

Hackett, Steven. Environmental and Natural Resources Economics: Theory, Policy, and the Sustainable Society (2nd ed.). Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe, 2012. Print

Wolff, Richard and Resnick Stephen. Contending Economic Theories: Neoclassical, Keynesian, and Marxian. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012. Print

Wolff, Richard. "The New Reading of Karl Marx's Capital in the United States." Professor Wolff's Social Movement Project, 2007. Web. 3 March 2015  http://www.rdwolff.com/content/new-reading-karl-marx%E2%80%99s-capital-united-states

4. The role that the FDA plays in setting food safety requirements is inherently costly to the economy. The function is not based on economic concerns but rather public health concerns -- the FDA's mandate dates to Congressional concern about the Elixir sulfanilamide disaster and traces its roots to Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, which documented meat production in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century (FDA.gov, 2009). Thus, decisions about FDA regulations are not made on the basis of economic good, but rather public good. Increased regulations would impose increased costs on business. In classical economics, these costs would act as a form of tax, increasing risk and discouraging investment. Eliminating these requirements would lower these costs, which would allow for an expansion of the food business. It could be argued that the threat of litigation today would counterbalance the need for regulations, but that claim has not been…...

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Works Cited:

Roubini, N. (1997). Supply side economics: Do tax rate cuts increase growth and revenues and reduce budget deficits? Or is it voodoo economics all over again? Stern School of Business. Retrieved April 24, 2010 from http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~nroubini/SUPPLY.htm

No author. (2010). Classical economics. TheShortRun.com. Retrieved April 24, 2010 from http://www.theshortrun.com/classroom/doctrines/classicals.html

McCallum, B. (2008). Monetarism. Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Retrieved April 24, 2010 from  http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Monetarism.html 

FDA.gov. (2009). FDA history part I. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved April 24, 2010 from  http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/Origin/ucm054819.htm

Economic Events: 1980-1989
the decade of greed. The era of onald eagan when the rich got richer and the poor got poorer. Despite this common wisdom, 1980 started off auspiciously. On May 8, 1980 the World Health Organization hailed "one of the century's greatest medical accomplishments," the final and total eradication of smallpox (Dickson 247). But how quickly times change - barely a quarter century has passed and this same disease is making headlines once again.

Attitudes change also. While many in this day and age would still agree that the 1980's was a selfish period in American history, a sea-change has occurred in the rhetoric issuing forth from Washington D.C. In a very fundamental way, party politics has been thrust aside as concerns for homeland security take precedence over petty partisanship. Michael Barone notes this in his analysis of a speech made by Democrat ichard Gephardt in the Summer of 2002:…...

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References

Barone, Michael. "The loyal opposition." U.S. News and World Report. 13 June 2003. 14

March 2003 http://www.usnews.com/usnews/opinion/baroneweb/mb_020613.htm.

Case, Karl E., and Ray C. Fair. "Principles of Economics." Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ 1992.

Thus, a region or nation experiencing economic depression will be unable to use the interest rate lever to boost the economy. Similarly a country with high inflation will be unable to independently raise interest rates to contain inflation. Moreover, Islamic countries, which form a large part of the geography, do not believe in interest rates.
Political barriers -- Political differences between nations make it extremely difficult for them to adopt a common currency. It can lead to a loss in political sovereignty as monetary interests would need to surpass political interests. This is unlikely to be acceptable to most of the nations and the idea of a single currency may be difficult to implement (Gimp, 2008).

Will Pros and Cons change Over Time? Depending On the Country?

The economic conditions to determine a monetary union depend on: the openness and size of the economy involved to trade; the free movements of capital…...

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Bibliography

BBC. (1997, November 21). European monetary union - pros and cons. Retrieved May 11, 2009, from BBC News:  http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/single_currency/25081.stm 

Filho, F.F. (2003). Is it possible to achieve a monetary union in MERCOSUR? (South America). Retrieved May 11, 2009, from Vanderbilt University: http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/files/egnZLy/Ferrari%20Filho%202.pdf

Frankel, J. (1999, August). No single currency regime is right for all countries or at all times. Retrieved May 11, 2009, from Princeton University: http://www.princeton.edu/~ies/IES_Essays/E215.pdf

Gimp, F. (2008, June 27). A world currency - pros and cons and can it become a reality. Retrieved May 11, 2009, from Piponomics:  http://www.babypips.com/blogs/piponomics/a_world_currency_pros_and_cons.html